๐
Chapter Introduction: What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity (เคैเคต
เคตिเคตिเคงเคคा) is
the enormous variety of living organisms found on Earth — from microscopic
bacteria to giant blue whales, from glowing jellyfish to towering redwood
trees.
๐
NCERT Definition to Remember
The immense variety of living organisms found on Earth — in different forms,
sizes, and habitats — is calledbiodiversity.
๐ Why is Biodiversity
Important?
- Microscopic algae
in oceans release most of the oxygen we breathe.
- Fungi
and bacteria decompose dead matter, making soil fertile.
- Birds,
bees, and bats pollinate flowers — essential for plant
reproduction.
- Plants
capture sunlight to prepare food that supports nearly all life.
- Every
organism plays a role in keeping ecosystems stable and functional.
๐พ
Indian Farmers and Biodiversity
For centuries, Indian farmers conserved diverse crop varieties with traits like
drought tolerance and pest resistance. They understood that diversity reduces
the risk of crop failure and strengthens food security.
๐
Did You Know? Ancient Indian texts like
the Rigveda and Brihat Samhita classify
animals based on habitat (terrestrial, aquatic, aerial), behaviour patterns,
and ecological roles — thousands of years before modern science!
๐ฎ๐ณ
India as a Biodiversity Hotspot
India’s diverse landscape — mountains, deserts, rainforests,
plateaus, and coastlines — creates varied habitats supporting thousands of
species.
๐ฆ Endemic Species
Species found ONLY in a specific region and nowhere else in the world. Example:
Nilgiri Tahr, Lion-tailed Macaque, Neelakurinji flower — all found only in
India.
๐ฅ Biodiversity Hotspot
Regions that support a large number of endemic species AND have undergone
significant habitat loss. These need special conservation attention.
๐บ️ India’s Biodiversity
Hotspots: Western Ghats · Indo-Burma · The Himalayas · Sundaland
(Nicobar Islands)
๐ฟ India’s Endemic Species
— Examples
|
Organism
|
Type
|
Found In
|
|
Nilgiri Tahr
|
Animal (Mountain Goat)
|
Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Nadu
|
|
Lion-tailed
Macaque
|
Primate
|
Western
Ghats
|
|
Nepenthes khasiana
|
Pitcher Plant
|
Northeast India (Meghalaya)
|
|
Neelakurinji
|
Flowering
Plant
|
Nilgiri
Hills (blooms every 12 yrs)
|
๐ก
How did biodiversity evolve?
Small differences among individuals affected their chances of survival. These
differences accumulated over millions of generations, giving rise to new life
forms. Today’s diversity is the result of continuous change shaped by
interactions between organisms and their environment.
๐️
India’s Ancient Classification — Sangam Tinai System
Ancient Indian traditions, such as the Sangam Tinai classification
of landscapes, demonstrate a sophisticated understanding of biodiversity.
Sacred groves (เคฆेเคตเคตเคจ)
were protected, preserving diverse habitats — this aligned with modern
ecological principles, even without formal theory!
๐ฌ
How to Classify Organisms & Why?
Just like a library organises books by subject, scientists
organise millions of organisms into groups based on shared features. This is
called biological classification (เคैเคตिเค
เคตเคฐ्เคीเคเคฐเคฃ).
๐ Criteria Used to
Classify Organisms
- External
features — shape, size, body organisation
- Mode
of nutrition — autotrophic (เคธ्เคตเคชोเคทी)
or heterotrophic (เคชเคฐเคชोเคทी)
- Internal
structures — skeletal patterns, presence of organs, tissue types
- Cell
structure — unicellular or multicellular; eukaryote or
prokaryote; presence/absence of cell wall
- Ecological
role — producer, consumer, or decomposer
- Reproduction —
asexual and/or sexual methods
- Genetic
similarity — similarities in DNA (most accurate)
๐ก
Exam Tip: Why are genetic features most important?
Organisms with similar DNA share a common ancestry. External features can be
misleading (e.g., a dolphin looks like a fish but is a mammal!). DNA comparison
gives the most accurate picture of true relationships.
✅ Why is Classification
Important?
- Makes
study of living organisms more organised and systematic
- Helps
understand similarities and differences among living beings
- Helps
understand how different organisms are related and interact
- Helps
identify and name newly discovered organisms
- Supports
biodiversity conservation by identifying endangered organisms
- Allows
scientists worldwide to discuss organisms using a common system
⏳ Classification Systems Over
Time
4th century BCE
Aristotle — Grouped animals by habitat (land,
water, air). Simple but limited.
1758
Carolus Linnaeus — Two Kingdom System: Plantae and Animalia.
Problem: Where do bacteria and Amoeba go?
1866
Ernst Haeckel — Three Kingdom System:
Added Protista for microscopic unicellular organisms.
1938
Herbert F. Copeland — Four Kingdom System:
Added Monera for prokaryotes (bacteria).
1969
Robert H. Whittaker — Five Kingdom System:
Added Fungi as a separate kingdom. This is the system we
study! ๐ฏ
⚠️
Common Mistake Alert!
Students confuse who proposed which system. Remember:Whittaker (1969)proposed
the Five Kingdom Classification — the one you’ll be tested on most!
๐ฐ
Five Kingdom Classification — Deep Dive
Five Kingdoms: Monera → Protista → Fungi →
Plantae → Animalia
Criteria: Cell type · Cell structure · Level of
organisation · Mode of nutrition
๐ฆ
Monera
Prokaryotes
Unicellular
No true nucleus
Bacteria, Cyanobacteria
๐ฌ
Protista
Eukaryotes
Unicellular
True nucleus
Amoeba, Paramecium
๐
Fungi
Eukaryotes
Multi/Unicellular
Chitin cell wall
Mushroom, Yeast
๐ฟ
Plantae
Eukaryotes
Multicellular
Cellulose cell wall
Ferns, Roses, Mosses
๐พ
Animalia
Eukaryotes
Multicellular
No cell wall
Insects, Fish, Humans
๐ฆ Kingdom Monera —
Unicellular Prokaryotes
Bacteria and Cyanobacteria are single-celled prokaryotes
with a primitive nucleus (no membrane-bound nucleus). They are
found everywhere — soil, water, hot springs, and even inside our bodies!
- Lactobacillus —
makes curd (เคฆเคนी)
- Rhizobium —
fixes nitrogen in soil (helps plants grow)
- Cyanobacteria —
autotrophs; produce oxygen through photosynthesis
- Some
bacteria are pathogens (cause diseases)
๐ญ
Ram Bux Singh — Father of Modern Biogas ๐ฎ๐ณ
He established India’s first scientifically designed biogas plant in 1957 at
Ramnagar, Sitapur, Uttar Pradesh. Bacteria in the gut of ruminants produce
biogas from dung — Ram Bux Singh harnessed this for rural energy and
sustainability!
⏰
Ancient Oxygen Makers! Cyanobacteria were among
the first organisms to produce oxygen through photosynthesis ~2.5 billion years
ago! Fossils of ancient cyanobacteria (called stromatolites) have
been found in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
๐ฌ Kingdom Protista —
Unicellular Eukaryotes
Single-celled eukaryotic organisms living in water or moist
places. They have a true membrane-bound nucleus. May or may not
have a cell wall.
๐ข Autotrophic Protists
Chlamydomonas, Euglena (in light) — perform photosynthesis, produce oxygen,
form base of aquatic food chains.
๐ด Heterotrophic Protists
Amoeba, Paramecium — feed on other organisms or organic matter; some act as
decomposers.
๐ Kingdom Fungi —
Heterotrophic Decomposers
Mostly multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls made
of chitin (เคाเคเคिเคจ).
They absorb nutrients from dead/decaying matter through a network of filaments
called mycelium (เคเคตเค-เคाเคฒ).
- Most
fungi are saprophytes (feed on dead organic matter) — key
decomposers
- Reproduce
by forming spores; grow best in warm, moist conditions
- Yeast —
unicellular fungus (but has chitin wall, so placed under Fungi)
- Aspergillus
& Penicillium — used to make antibiotics and enzymes
⚠️
Exam Trap! Yeast is unicellular but classified as Fungi —
Why?
Because its cell wall is made ofchitin(characteristic of fungi), not
cellulose. Cell wall composition determines kingdom, not number of cells!
๐
Mushroom Farming in India
Wild edible mushrooms have high nutritional and medicinal value. Mushroom
cultivation (เคुเคฎ्เคฌ เคेเคคी) is a growing
livelihood option — minimal space, low investment, and fast cycle (30–45 days)!
|
Kingdom
|
Cell Type
|
Cell Wall
|
Nutrition
|
Organisation
|
|
Monera
|
Prokaryote
|
Yes (varies)
|
Auto/Hetero
|
Unicellular
|
|
Protista
|
Eukaryote
|
May/May
not
|
Auto/Hetero
|
Unicellular
|
|
Fungi
|
Eukaryote
|
Chitin
|
Heterotrophic (Absorption)
|
Mostly Multicellular
|
|
Plantae
|
Eukaryote
|
Cellulose
|
Autotrophic
|
Multicellular
|
|
Animalia
|
Eukaryote
|
Absent
|
Heterotrophic
|
Multicellular
|
๐ฑ
Kingdom Plantae — Five Plant Groups
Plants are multicellular, autotrophic eukaryotes
with a cellulose cell wall. They form the base of most food chains
and release oxygen essential for life.
Kingdom Plantae → 5 Classes: Thallophyta →
Bryophyta → Pteridophyta → Gymnosperm → Angiosperm
๐ 1. Thallophyta (Algae)
— Simplest Plants
- Simplest
plant body called a thallus (เค
เคตिเคญाเคिเคค
เคถเคฐीเคฐ) —
no roots, stem, or leaves
- Mostly
found in water or moist environments
- Direct
exchange of gases, nutrients, and water with surroundings
- Example: Spirogyra (pond
algae)
๐ชจ
Lichens — Nature’s Pollution Detectors!
The white-green patches on tree trunks are lichens. They change colour with air
pollutants, so researchers use them as natural bioindicators of air quality.
Lichens are symbiotic — an autotrophic alga + a heterotrophic fungus living
together. Some are used as spices, medicines, and dyes!
๐ฟ 2. Bryophyta —
Amphibians of the Plant Kingdom
- More
differentiated body than thallophytes — have rhizoids (root-like),
stem-like and leaf-like structures
- Called “amphibians
of plant kingdom” — can live on land but need moisture
- No
vascular tissues (no xylem or phloem)
- Need
water for reproduction (male cells must swim)
- Examples: Marchantia (liverwort),
Moss
๐ก
Exam Shortcut — Remember “No Vascular = No Seeds”
Both Thallophyta and Bryophyta have NO vascular tissue and NO seeds.
Pteridophyta gets vascular tissue but still NO seeds. Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms have BOTH vascular tissue AND seeds.
๐ฟ 3. Pteridophyta (Ferns)
— First Land Plants with Transport
- Possess true
roots, stems and leaves
- Have vascular
tissues — xylem (water transport) and phloem (food transport)
- Still
need water for reproduction — male cells must swim
- Do
NOT produce seeds
- Example:
Ferns
๐ฒ 4. Gymnosperms — Seeds
Without Fruits
- Gymnos =
naked, spermos = seed → seeds are NOT enclosed in
fruits
- Well-adapted
to cold and dry regions — needle-like leaves reduce water loss
- Water
NOT essential for fertilisation
- Seeds
exposed on cones
- Examples:
Pine, Cycads
๐ธ 5. Angiosperms — Most
Advanced: Flowers + Fruits
- Angeion =
vessel, spermos = seeds → seeds enclosed within
fruits
- Produce
flowers to attract pollinators — most efficient reproduction
- Fruits
help disperse seeds to new locations
- Most
diverse plant group on Earth
- Examples:
Gulmohar, Mango, Rose, Wheat, Rice
|
Class
|
Vascular Tissue
|
Roots/Stem/Leaves
|
Seeds
|
Fruit
|
Needs Water for Repro.
|
|
Thallophyta
|
❌
|
❌
|
❌
|
❌
|
—
|
|
Bryophyta
|
❌
|
Partial
|
❌
|
❌
|
✅ Yes
|
|
Pteridophyta
|
✅
|
✅
|
❌
|
❌
|
✅ Yes
|
|
Gymnosperm
|
✅
|
✅
|
✅ (naked)
|
❌
|
❌ No
|
|
Angiosperm
|
✅
|
✅
|
✅ (enclosed)
|
✅
|
❌ No
|
๐
Hortus Malabaricus — 17th Century Indian Botany
One of the earliest scientific books on Indian plants, compiled with help fromItty
Achudan(Indian herbalist, botanist, and physician). It describes hundreds
of plant species and their medicinal uses — showing how traditional knowledge
and science work together!
๐พ
Kingdom Animalia — Animal Groups
Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes
with no cell wall. They show locomotion, rapid response to stimuli,
and coordinated behaviour.
Classification Basis: Presence/Absence of Notochord
(เคชृเคท्เค เคฐเค्เคु)
Non-Chordata (Invertebrates) | Protochordata | Vertebrata
๐ Invertebrates
(Non-Chordata) — No Notochord
|
Phylum
|
Key Feature
|
Examples
|
Habitat
|
|
Porifera
|
Pores in body; no true tissues; cellular organisation
|
Sponges
|
Aquatic (marine)
|
|
Cnidaria
|
Tissue
level; tentacles; single opening
|
Hydra,
Jellyfish, Coral
|
Fresh
& marine water
|
|
Platyhelminthes
|
Flatworms; bilateral symmetry; organ level
|
Tapeworm, Planaria
|
Water/inside host
|
|
Nematoda
|
Roundworms;
cylindrical; two openings (mouth+anus)
|
Ascaris,
Roundworm
|
Soil/water/host
|
|
Annelida
|
Segmented body; organ system; body cavity
|
Earthworm, Leech
|
Moist soil/water
|
|
Arthropoda
|
Jointed
appendages; hard exoskeleton
|
Insects,
Crabs, Spiders
|
Land
and water
|
|
Mollusca
|
Soft body; shell in many; distinct head + foot
|
Snail, Squid, Octopus
|
Water/moist land
|
|
Echinodermata
|
Spiny
skin; calcium carbonate endoskeleton
|
Starfish,
Sea Urchin
|
Marine
water
|
⚠️
Common Exam Mistake — Arthropoda vs Annelida
Both have segmented bodies. The difference: Arthropoda has a hardexoskeleton(outer
skeleton) andjointed appendages(legs), while Annelida has soft
cylindrical segments with no exoskeleton.
๐งฝ
Sponge Superpower! One kilogram of sponge can
filter up to 24,000 litres of sea water per day! They are
nature’s most efficient water filterers.
๐ Vertebrates (Chordata)
— With Backbone
Vertebrates have a vertebral column (เคเคถेเคฐुเค เคฆเคฃ्เคก / backbone) —
an internal skeletal structure that supports the body and protects vital
organs.
Vertebrates are classified into 5 groups:
๐ Fish (Pisces)
Live in water; breathe through gills; fins for movement; cold-blooded; lay eggs
in water.
๐ธ Amphibians
Live in water AND land; moist skin; lay eggs in water; cold-blooded. Examples:
Frog, Salamander.
๐ฆ Reptiles
Scaly skin; lay eggs on land; cold-blooded. Examples: Lizard, Snake, Crocodile.
๐ฆ
Birds (Aves)
Feathers; hollow bones; warm-blooded; lay eggs. Examples: Eagle, Sparrow,
Peacock.
๐ Mammals
Hair/fur; warm-blooded; mammary glands (produce milk); give birth to live young
(mostly). Examples: Humans, Tiger, Whale.
๐ Protochordates
Transitional group — possess notochord at some stage in life. Example: Amphioxus.
Help understand the evolution of vertebrates.
๐️ Hierarchical
Classification
Kingdom
→
Phylum
→
Class
→
Order
→
Family
→
Genus
→
Species
⬆️ Broadest group
Most specific ⬆️
Example — Tiger’s Classification:
Kingdom: Animalia → Phylum: Chordata → Class: Mammalia
→ Order: Carnivora → Family: Felidae → Genus: Panthera
Species: Panthera tigris
๐
Biodiversity as a Disaster Shield
Forests with rich biodiversity protect against disasters! Mangrove forests
reduced damage during Orissa’s 1999 super cyclone. Western Ghats biodiversity
acts as a biological barrier against Monkey Fever (Kyasanur Forest Disease).
Diverse trees prevent flood damage and soil erosion.
๐ท️
Scientific Naming — Binomial Nomenclature
A tiger is called bagh in Hindi, puli in
Tamil, tiger in English, and tigre in French.
Different names for the same animal cause confusion. That’s why scientists
use binomial nomenclature (เคฆ्เคตिเคชเคฆ
เคจाเคฎเคชเคฆ्เคงเคคि).
๐
Who Introduced Binomial Nomenclature?
Carolus Linnaeusintroduced this system in the 18th century. Every
organism has a two-part scientific name written in Latin or a Latinised form.
๐ Rules for Writing
Scientific Names
- The
name has two parts — Genus name + Species name
- The Genus
name begins with a capital letter and comes first
- The species
name is in lowercase and comes second
- The
full name is written in italics (when printed) or underlined (when
handwritten)
|
Common Name
|
Genus
|
Species
|
Scientific Name
|
|
Tiger
|
Panthera
|
tigris
|
Panthera tigris
|
|
Lion
|
Panthera
|
leo
|
Panthera
leo
|
|
Mango
|
Mangifera
|
indica
|
Mangifera indica
|
|
Pea
Plant
|
Pisum
|
sativum
|
Pisum
sativum
|
|
Human
|
Homo
|
sapiens
|
Homo sapiens
|
๐ก
Why are Tiger and Lion in the same Genus “Panthera”?
Both belong to genus Panthera because they share common
features: both can roar, have similar skull structure, and share a common
ancestry. They are closely related but different species.
๐ธ
Purple Frog of Kerala! The Purple Frog (Nasikabatrachus
sahyadrensis) has its species name after the Sahyadri Hills. Discovered in
2003, it lives underground for most of the year and comes out only during
monsoon to breed. Its discovery helped scientists understand ancient amphibian
groups!
๐งฌ
Beyond Five Kingdoms — Three Domain System
In 1977, Carl Woese proposed the Three Domain System based on DNA comparisons:Bacteria
· Archaea · Eukarya. This showed microscopic life forms are far more
diverse than previously believed. DNA-based classification is the most
accurate.
๐ฆ
Fossils, Biodiversity Under Threat & Key Warnings
๐ฆด Fossils as Evidence of
Life’s History
Fossils (เคीเคตाเคถ्เคฎ) are
preserved remains of plants and animals found in layers of rocks, sand, and
mud. They act as natural records showing how life has changed over millions of
years.
- Older
rock layers contain simpler organisms
- Newer
layers show more complex forms
- Important
fossils of dinosaurs, early humans, and ancient plants have been found in
India
๐จ๐ฌ
Birbal Sahni — India’s Great Fossil Scientist
An eminent Indian scientist who studied fossil plants. He founded theBirbal
Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP)in Lucknow, which continues his
work on ancient plants and past environments. His studies helped link
present-day plants with their ancestors.
๐จ Biodiversity Under
Threat
Human activities are rapidly reducing biodiversity:
- Pollution —
kills aquatic life and destroys habitats
- Deforestation —
destroys homes of thousands of species
- Overuse
of resources — overfishing, overhunting
- Climate
change — shifts habitats, causes extinction
⚠️
Chain Reaction of Extinction!
When one species disappears, others that depend on it may also decline and
eventually disappear. For example: if bees go extinct, flowers won’t be
pollinated → fruits won’t form → animals that eat fruits will starve →
carnivores will have no prey → ecosystem collapse!
๐ฆ
Sangai Deer and Phumdis — Manipur’s Unique Ecosystem
Floating grasslands called phumdis in Loktak Lake, Manipur,
are home to the endangered Sangai (dancing deer), endemic to
Manipur. Declared extinct in 1951, rediscovered in 1953! Currently listed on
IUCN Red List. Classification helped identify and save this species.
๐ก
Final Exam Tip: Why do classification systems keep
changing?
Science is an ongoing process. New tools (microscopes, DNA analysis) reveal new
information. Aristotle’s system worked for his time, but DNA-based
classification gives much deeper insight. Classification changes as our
understanding grows — that’s the beauty of science!
๐
Quick Revision Summary — At a Glance
๐ BiodiversityThe
enormous variety of life forms on Earth — essential for ecosystem stability.
๐ฎ๐ณ India’s
HotspotsWestern Ghats, Indo-Burma, Himalayas, Sundaland — rich in endemic
species.
๐ Classification CriteriaCell
type, cell structure, level of organisation, mode of nutrition, ecological
role.
๐ฐ Five KingdomsMonera
→ Protista → Fungi → Plantae → Animalia (Whittaker, 1969).
๐ฑ Kingdom PlantaeThallophyta
→ Bryophyta → Pteridophyta → Gymnosperm → Angiosperm.
๐พ Kingdom AnimaliaNon-Chordata
(8 phyla) + Protochordata + Vertebrata (Fish, Amphibia, Reptiles, Birds,
Mammals).
๐ท️ Binomial NomenclatureTwo-part
Latin scientific name. Introduced by Carolus Linnaeus. Example: Panthera
tigris.
๐งฌ HierarchyKingdom →
Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species
๐ฆ FossilsPreserved
remains showing life’s history. Older layers = simpler organisms; newer =
complex.
⚠️ ThreatsPollution,
deforestation, overuse, climate change — threatening global biodiversity.
๐ฌ Monera Key FactProkaryote;
primitive (no true) nucleus; includes bacteria and cyanobacteria.
๐ Fungi Key FactChitin
cell wall; saprophytes/decomposers; reproduce by spores; Yeast is unicellular
fungus.
๐
Important Exam Questions with Answers
Q1. What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important
for an ecosystem? (CBSE-type / 3 Marks)
Ans: Biodiversity is the enormous
variety of living organisms found on Earth — in different forms, sizes, shapes,
and habitats, from microscopic bacteria to giant trees.
Importance: (1) Algae produce most of the oxygen
we breathe. (2) Fungi and bacteria decompose dead matter, making soil fertile.
(3) Bees, birds, and bats pollinate flowers — essential for plant reproduction.
(4) Biodiversity maintains ecosystem balance. When one species disappears,
others depending on it are also affected.
Q2. Why is Yeast (unicellular) classified under Fungi and
not Protista? (2 Marks)
Ans: Although Yeast is unicellular (like
Protista), it is classified under Kingdom Fungi because its cell wall
is made of chitin — a characteristic feature of fungi. Protists have a
cell wall made of cellulose (or lack a cell wall entirely). Cell wall
composition, not the number of cells, determines the kingdom for Yeast.
Q3. Differentiate between Bryophyta and Pteridophyta.
(CBSE / 3 Marks)
Ans:
Bryophyta: No vascular tissue (no xylem/phloem); no true roots,
stems, or leaves; called “amphibians of the plant kingdom”; need water for
reproduction; example — Moss, Marchantia.
Pteridophyta: Have vascular tissue (xylem and
phloem); have true roots, stems, and leaves; live on land; still need water for
reproduction (no seeds); example — Ferns.
Q4. Write the rules for writing binomial scientific names
with examples. (2 Marks)
Ans: Rules: (1) The name has two parts — Genus
name + species name. (2) Genus name starts with a capital letter. (3) Species
name is written in lowercase. (4) The name is written in italics (printed) or
underlined (handwritten).
Example: Tiger → Panthera tigris; Mango → Mangifera indica.
Q5. Name the Five Kingdoms proposed by Whittaker and
state one key feature of each. (5 Marks)
Ans:
1. Monera — Prokaryotes; no true nucleus; includes bacteria
and cyanobacteria.
2. Protista — Unicellular eukaryotes; true membrane-bound
nucleus; includes Amoeba and Paramecium.
3. Fungi — Multicellular (mostly) eukaryotes; cell wall made
of chitin; heterotrophic decomposers; includes mushrooms and yeast.
4. Plantae — Multicellular eukaryotes; cell wall made of
cellulose; autotrophic (photosynthesis); includes all plants.
5. Animalia — Multicellular eukaryotes; no cell wall;
heterotrophic; includes all animals.
Q6. What are endemic species? Give two examples from
India. What are biodiversity hotspots? (3 Marks)
Ans: Endemic species are those found
ONLY in a specific region and not naturally found anywhere else in the world.
Examples from India: (1) Nilgiri Tahr — found only in Nilgiri
Hills. (2) Neelakurinji — blooms only in Nilgiri Hills once in
12 years.
Biodiversity hotspots are regions that support a
large number of endemic species AND have undergone significant habitat loss.
India’s hotspots include the Western Ghats, Indo-Burma, the Himalayas, and Sundaland
(Nicobar Islands).
