Class 12 Political Science Chapter 2 | Contemporary Centres of Power | 2025-26

Class 12 Political Science Chapter 2 | Contemporary Centres of Power | 2025-26

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🎓 Class 12 – Political Science

📘 Chapter 2: Contemporary Centres of Power

📚 Book: Contemporary World Politics (NCERT)

📅 Session: 2025–26


👨‍🏫 Presented by: Amresh Kumar
🎯 Simplifying Concepts with Amresh Academy



🧭 Chapter Overview

🔹 After the end of the bipolar [द्विध्रुवीय] world in the 1990s, the global power structure began to change.
🔹 The United States was no longer the only superpower.
🔹 New centres of power started emerging 🌍🌏

💠 European Union (EU)

💠 ASEAN

💠 China

•Fast-growing economic superpower 🐉

•Huge impact on global politics 🌐

•

📌 In this chapter, we will explore these alternative power centres [विकल्प शक्ति केंद्र] and their future role in world affairs.



❇️ Objectives of Regional Organizations (क्षेत्रीय संगठनों के उद्देश्य)

🔸 Strengthen the sense of unity among member countries 🤝
🔸 Promote regional cooperation (क्षेत्रीय सहयोग) 🌍
🔸 Increase mutual trade (आपसी व्यापार) among members 💹
🔸 Maintain peace and harmony (शांति और सौहार्द) in the region 🕊️
🔸 Resolve conflicts through dialogue and discussion (आपसी बातचीत) 💬



❇️ Marshall Plan (मार्शल योजना)

🔹 After World War II, Europe suffered huge destruction 💣🌍
🔹 To rebuild Western Europe's economy, USA launched the Marshall Plan 🇺🇸💰
🔹 Under this plan:

•🏢 1948 – Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was formed

•🏛️ 1949 – Council of Europe created to oversee political matters

•🏭 1957 – European Economic Community (EEC) established

•🌐 1992 – Formation of the European Union (EU)

•

🔸 The EU gradually evolved from an economic body to a political union with:

•Common foreign policy 🌍

•Shared currency 💶 (Euro)

•Collective security & defense policy 🛡️



❇️ Formation of European Union (EU)

🔹 The disintegration of USSR in 1991 led to the formation of the EU in 1992.
🔹 It laid the foundation for:

•Common foreign and security policy

•Judicial cooperation ⚖️

•Creation of a single currency (Euro) 💶

•

❇️ Objectives of Formation of European Union (यूरोपीय संघ के गठन के उद्देश्य)

🔹 Develop a common foreign and security policy 🌍🛡️
🔹 Enhance cooperation on internal and judicial matters ⚖️🤝
🔹 Introduce a single currency (Euro) 💶
🔹 Allow visa-free movement (वीजा मुक्त आवागमन) across member nations ✈️🛂



❇️ Features of the European Union (यूरोपीय संघ की विशेषताएँ)

🔹 EU evolved from an economic union into a strong political entity over time 🏛️➡️🗳️
🔹 It now functions almost like a giant nation-state (विशाल राष्ट्र-राज्य) 🌍
🔹 EU has its own:

•Flag 🚩

•Anthem 🎶

•Foundation Day 📅

•Currency – Euro 💶


🔹 It has adopted a joint foreign and security policy to deal with other countries 🤝🛡️
🔹 EU Flag: A circle of 12 golden stars 🌟 representing:

•Unity (एकता)

•Wholeness (समग्रता)

•Harmony (मेलमिलाप)

•Perfection (पूर्णता)



✳️ Factors That Make the European Union Powerful

(यूरोपीय संघ को ताकतवर बनाने वाले कारक)

🔹 🌍 Largest Economy – GDP $19.35 trillion (2024)
🔹 🏛️ Political Power – France in UN Security Council
🔹 🪖 Strong Military – 2nd largest combined force
🔹 💶 Euro Power – Competes with US Dollar
🔹 📈 Global Trade Giant – 3x more than USA
🔹 🌏 Wide Economic Reach – Europe, Asia, Africa
🔹 💼 WTO Key Player – Major trading bloc
🔹 ☢️ Nuclear Power – France adds strategic strength
🔹 🎯 Global Influence – Permanent members in UNSC
🔹 🔍 Supranational Body – Influences world policies



❇️ Weaknesses of the European Union

(यूरोपीय संघ की कमजोरियाँ)

🔹 Member countries have their own foreign and defence policies 🪖🌍
 👉 Sometimes these are conflicting with each other
  📌 Example: Disagreement on Iraq war (इराक युद्ध)

🔹 Euro currency 💶 adoption faced resistance in some parts of Europe
 👉 Countries like Denmark 🇩🇰 & Sweden 🇸🇪 rejected the Maastricht Treaty & Euro currency

🔹 Some EU members were part of US-led military alliances 🤝🇺🇸

🔹 BREXIT:
 👉 Britain exited the EU in June 2016 through a referendum (जनमत संग्रह) 🇬🇧❌🇪🇺



❇️ Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

(दक्षिण – पूर्व एशियाई राष्ट्रों का संगठन)

🔹 Formed in August 1967 📜 – 5 countries signed the Bangkok Declaration
 👉 Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand

🔹 Later joined by:
 👉 Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia
 ➡️ Total 10 member countries 🌏

❇️ Main Objectives of ASEAN 🛠️

🔹 Promote economic growth of member countries 📈
🔹 Achieve social and cultural development 🎭
🔹 Ensure regional peace and stability 🔔
 👉 Based on Rule of Law (कानून का शासन) and UN Principles 🌐

❇️ ASEAN Style (आसियान शैली) 😇

🔹 Known for its informal, non-confrontational (टकराव रहित) and cooperative diplomacy 🤝
🔹 This approach is called the unique "ASEAN Way" 🕊️



🌏 Pillars of ASEAN (आसियान के स्तंभ)

🔐 1. Security Community
➡️ Prevents military conflict (सैन्य संघर्ष) in the region
➡️ Promotes peace (शांति) & friendly talks (बातचीत)

💼 2. Economic Community
➡️ Builds common market (साझा बाज़ार) & production base
➡️ Helps in economic and social development (विकास)

🎭 3. Socio-Cultural Community
➡️ Boosts cultural unity (सांस्कृतिक एकता) & cooperation (सहयोग)
➡️ Replaces conflict (टकराव) with dialogue (संवाद)



📘 ASEAN Vision Document 2020 (आसियान विज़न दस्तावेज़ 2020)

🌟 Highlights ASEAN as a fast-growing regional organization
🌍 Focuses on outward-looking role (बहिर्मुखी भूमिका) in global matters
🕊️ Promotes dialogue over conflict (टकराव की जगह बातचीत)
🤝 Builds peace, cooperation & understanding in the region

🌐 ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)

📅 Formed in 1994
🎯 Aim: Coordinate security (सुरक्षा) and foreign policies (विदेश नीति) among nations
🛡️ Supports peaceful diplomacy and regional stability



✨ ASEAN & India (आसियान और भारत)

🧭 1991 – India adopted Look East Policy (पूरब की ओर देखो नीति)

🤝 Signed Free Trade Agreements with Singapore & Thailand (मुक्त व्यापार समझौता)

📜 Working towards a Free Trade Agreement with ASEAN as a group

💬 ASEAN’s real strength lies in continuous dialogue & consultation (निरंतर संवाद और परामर्श)

🛡️ It’s Asia’s only group offering a platform for security & political talks (राजनैतिक और सुरक्षा मामलों पर चर्चा)

🛫 Recently, India shifted from Look East to Act East Policy (पूर्वोत्तर कार्यनीति)
➡️ Strengthening ties across sectors like trade, connectivity, defence

🎉 2018 Republic Day – All 10 ASEAN leaders were Chief Guests (मुख्य अतिथि) at India's celebration



✨ Rise of China (चीन का विकास)

📅 1949 – Communist Revolution (साम्यवादी क्रांति) established Communist Rule in China

🏭 Adopted Socialist Economy (साम्यवादी अर्थव्यवस्था), but faced many challenges:

•Focused on building a heavy industrial economy (विशाल औद्योगिक अर्थव्यवस्था)

•All resources were directed toward industries 🏗️

🏥 Despite being a developing country, China advanced in:

•Employment (रोजगार)

•Health Services (स्वास्थ्य सुविधा)

•Social Welfare (सामाजिक कल्याण)

👥 But rising population (बढ़ती जनसंख्या) became a hurdle in development

🌾 Agriculture was based on traditional methods (परंपरागत तरीके) and couldn’t meet industrial needs



🔧 China's Economic Reforms (चीन में सुधारों की पहल)

🔹 1972 – China ended its isolation (एकांतवास) by building relations with USA

🔹 1973 – PM Chou En Lai proposed modernization in 4 sectors:

•🌾 Agriculture (कृषि)

•🏭 Industry (उद्योग)

•💼 Services (सेवा)

•🧪 Science & Technology (विज्ञान-प्रौद्योगिकी)

•

🔹 1978 – Leader Deng Xiaoping launched Open Door Policy and economic reforms (आर्थिक सुधार)

🔹 1982 – ✅ Privatization of farming (खेती का निजीकरण)

🔹 1998 – 🏭 Privatization of industries + Creation of SEZ (Special Economic Zones – विशेष आर्थिक क्षेत्र)

🔹 2001 – China joined WTO (विश्व व्यापार संगठन) 🌍
→ This boosted foreign trade and made China a global economic power 💹



🚫 Negative Aspects of Chinese Reforms (चीनी सुधारों के नकारात्मक पहलू)

🔻 Unequal Benefit – Economic growth didn’t reach all people equally 🙍‍♂️🙍‍♀️
(आर्थिक लाभ सब तक नहीं पहुँचा)

🔻 Unemployment 📉 – Adopting capitalist methods (पूँजीवादी तरीक़े) increased joblessness
(बेरोजगारी बढ़ी)

🔻 Women Issues 🚺 – Working conditions for women are unsatisfactory
(कामकाजी महिलाओं की स्थिति ठीक नहीं)

🔻 Income Gap 💰 – Big gap in income between:

•Villages 🏞️ and Cities 🏙️

•Coastal areas 🌊 and Inland areas 🏞️

(आय में असमानता)

🔻 Environmental Damage 🌳❌ – Development harmed nature and environment
(पर्यावरण को नुकसान पहुँचा)

🔻 Corruption 💼💸 – Rise in corruption in administration and social life
(भ्रष्टाचार बढ़ा)



⚔️ India–China Relations: Conflict Areas (भारत-चीन संबंध : विवाद क्षेत्र)

🛕 1950 – China occupied Tibet (तिब्बत) and started building settlements near India’s border, creating tension.

⚔️ 1962 War – China attacked India to forcefully claim parts of Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh 🏔️.

🤝 China–Pakistan Alliance – China continues to support Pakistan, troubling India strategically.

💣 Nuclear Opposition – China opposed India’s nuclear tests and tried to block global recognition 📛.

🛰️ Military ties with Bangladesh & Myanmar – Seen as a threat to Indian interests 🔴.

🚫 UN Veto on Terrorist Ban – China used veto power in the United Nations to stop banning terror groups like Jaish-e-Mohammed and Masood Azhar ❌🧨.

🛣️ One Belt One Road (OBOR) – This massive project passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (POK), which India sees as an encirclement strategy 🔄.

🧭 Doklam Standoff (2017) – China tried to take control of strategic Bhutanese land near India.
India’s firm and patient stand won global appreciation 🌍👏.



🤝 India–China Relations: Era of Cooperation (भारत-चीन संबंध : सहयोग का दौर)

🔄 In the 1970s, a change in Chinese leadership shifted the focus from ideological to more practical issues (व्यावहारिक मुद्दे).

🛫 In 1988, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi visited China, leading to efforts for maintaining status quo (यथास्थिति) on border issues.

🎭 Both countries signed agreements to boost cultural exchange (सांस्कृतिक आदान–प्रदान), collaborate in science & technology (विज्ञान और तकनीक), and open four border trade posts for improving trade.

📈 Since 1999, bilateral trade has grown by 30% annually. Even in global energy deals, both nations agreed to cooperate rather than compete ⚡.

🌐 On the international stage, India and China have adopted similar policies (एक जैसी नीतियाँ) in organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO) and other economic platforms 💼.



Japan: An Emerging Alternative Centre of Power

•🏭 High-tech leader – Home to global brands like Sony, Toyota, Honda

•🌱 Few natural resources, yet rapid growth post-WWII

•🌐 Member of OECD (1964) & only Asian member of G-7

•💣 Only country to suffer nuclear bombings (Hiroshima & Nagasaki)

•💰 2nd largest contributor to UN budget (~10% of total)

•🛡️ Security alliance with USA (since 1951)

•📜 Article 9 of Constitution – Japan renounces war completely

•💸 Military spending only 1% of GDP, still 7th largest globally

•🧠 Peaceful diplomacy + economic strength = Key alternative global power



South Korea: A Rising Centre of Power

•📍 Divided from North Korea post-WWII along the 38th Parallel

•⚔️ Korean War (1950–53) worsened Cold War rivalries

•🌐 Both Koreas joined UN in 1991

•📈 “Miracle on the Han River” – Rapid economic rise (1960s–80s)

•🌍 Member of OECD since 1996, 11th largest economy (2017)

•🛡️ 10th largest military spender globally

•🌱 HDI Rank: 18 (UNDP 2016) – due to land reforms, rural upliftment & education

•🚀 Known for top brands like Samsung, LG, Hyundai

•🤝 Strong India–Korea relations – trade, culture, tech cooperation growing steadily



🔗 📚 Related Posts:

❓ 🙋‍♂️ FAQs – Contemporary Centres of Power (Chapter 2)

Q1. What is the main focus of Chapter 2: Contemporary Centres of Power?
A: It focuses on emerging global powers like the EU, USA, China, ASEAN, and their influence after the Cold War.

Q2. What is the role of the European Union in world politics?
A: The EU acts as an economic and political bloc, promoting integration and playing a global diplomatic and economic role.

Q3. How has China emerged as a power centre?
A: Through economic reforms, strong manufacturing, global trade ties, and military expansion.

Q4. What does ASEAN stand for?
A: Association of Southeast Asian Nations – promoting regional peace, economic growth, and political stability.

Q5. Why is the USA still considered a global superpower?
A: Due to its military strength, global influence, technological edge, and economic leadership.








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