Class 12 History – Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones | Harappan Civilization Notes

Class 12 History – Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones | Harappan Civilization Notes

Ancient India
Published on By Amresh Academy

 

📘 Class 12 History – Chapter 1

🧱 Bricks, Beads and Bones (Harappan Civilization)

🌍 Meaning of the word Culture (संस्कृति का अर्थ)

👉 Archaeologists use the term ‘Culture’ to refer to a group of antiquities (प्राचीन वस्तुएं) of a particular style, belonging to a specific period & geographical area.

🏛️ Harappan Civilization / Indus Valley Civilization

  • ✅ First civilization of ancient India.

  • ✅ Named after Harappa, located on the left bank of Ravi river (Pakistan).

  • ✅ Time period: 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE

  • ✅ Spread: Initially 12.99 lakh sq. km, later expanded to 15–20 lakh sq. km

  • ✅ Alternate names:

    • Indus Valley Civilization

    • Indus-Saraswati Civilization

    • Apt Name: Harappan Civilization

📑 Inscriptions:

  • 2467 recorded earlier (Mahadevan & Vishwanath)

  • Now around 3000 inscriptions

📅 Periods of Harappan Culture

  1. 🏗️ Early Harappan Culture

  2. 🏙️ Mature/Developed Harappan Culture

  3. 🏚️ Later Harappan Culture

📌 Time Terminologies

  • B.C. (Before Christ) – ईसा पूर्व

  • A.D. (Anno Domini) – ईसा पश्चात

  • B.P. (Before Present) – वर्तमान से पूर्व

🔎 Discovery of Harappan Civilization

  • 📍 First discovered in 1921-22 under leadership of Dayaram Sahni, Rakhal Das Banerjee & Sir John Marshall.

  • 📍 During 1856 railway construction (Karachi–Lahore), Harappan site found but mistaken for ruins. Bricks used for laying railway line.

  • 📍 1920-21: Harappa excavated (Dayaram Sahni, Vatsa).

  • 📍 1922: Mohenjodaro excavated (Rakhal Das Banerjee).

  • 📍 1924: Sir John Marshall officially announced discovery of Indus Civilization.

🏙️ Mohenjodaro – Literal Meaning

  • Mound of the Dead (मृतकों का टीला)

  • Sindh Na Nakalsthan

  • Garden of Sindh

❓ Why called Indus Valley Civilization?

👉 Because it was spread around the Indus River valley, where land was fertile and Harappans practiced agriculture.

✍️ Script of Indus Civilization

  • 🖊️ First attempt to read: Wendell (1925)

  • 🖊️ Latest attempts: Natwar Jha, Rajaram, Ghanpat Singh Dhanya

  • ❌ Still undeciphered (अभी तक पढ़ी नहीं जा सकी)

  • 📍 Maximum inscriptions:

    • Mohenjodaro (highest)

    • Harappa (second)

    • Dholavira (largest signboard inscriptions)

📝 Features:

  • Pictographic (चित्रलिपि)

  • Written both sides → called Boustrophedon

  • Used on seals, pottery, stones

🏺 Important Findings

  • Seals: Rectangular, Square, Cylindrical

  • Articles found on rectangle; Articles + Pictures on square

  • Mesopotamian seals found at Mohenjodaro

  • Persian marble pieces found at Lothal

👥 People / Creator of Indus Civilization

Excavations found 4 types of skeletal remains (अस्थि पंजर):

  1. Proto–Australoid

  2. Mediterranean

  3. Alpine

  4. Mongoloid

👉 Suggests that Harappan Civilization was a mix of races.
👉 Founder people considered as Dravidians, later migrated to South India.


🧱 Salient Features of Indus Civilization

🌟 Key Characteristics

  • ⚒️ Bronze Age Civilization – Harappans used bronze (कांस्य), not iron.

  • 🏙️ First Urban Revolution in Indian history → Evident from planned cities & excavations.

  • 💱 Trade & Commerce were highly developed.

  • 🕊️ Pacifist Attitude (शांतिवादी) → Hardly any weapons found (no shields, armor, swords in excavations).

  • 👥 Collectivist Life (सामूहिक जीवन) →

    1. Great Bath (Mohenjodaro)

    2. Stadium (Dholavira & Junikaran)

    3. Assembly Hall (Mohenjodaro & Junikaran)

  • ⚔️ No knowledge of Iron → First evidence of iron in Atranjikhera (Etah, UP, ~1050 BCE)

  • ❌ No knowledge of Brass

  • 📜 Sources of Harappan Information →

    1. Houses & Buildings 🏠

    2. Pottery 🍶

    3. Jewellery 💍

    4. Tools ⚒️

    5. Seals 🔖

    6. Excavated Coins & Architecture 🏛️

📍 Major Harappan Sites

In India 🇮🇳

  • 🏞️ Dholavira (Gujarat)

  • ⚓ Lothal (Gujarat, dockyard)

  • 🔥 Kalibangan (Rajasthan – fire altars, ploughed field)

  • 🏡 Banawali (Haryana)

  • 🏚️ Rakhigarhi (Haryana – largest site in India)

  • 🐚 Nageshwar (Gujarat – shell working)

In Pakistan 🇵🇰

  • 🏭 Balakot

  • 🏺 Chanhudaro (famous for bead-making factory)

  • 🏯 Kot Diji (early Harappan site)

🏛️ Town Planning & Architecture of Harappan Civilization

🏙️ Town Planning Features

  1. Division of City:

    • 🏰 Citadel/Fort – On raised mud-brick platform, surrounded by walls → for public use & administration.

    • 🏘️ Lower Town – Residential area, also walled, built on raised platforms for flood protection.

  2. Roads & Streets:

    • Straight roads cutting at right angles (90°) → Grid / Chessboard / Trap method.

    • Roads mostly made of mud.

    • 🛞 Wheel marks found at Banawali.

    • 🧱 Paved roads evidence at Kalibangan.

  3. Drainage System:

    • Covered drains on either side of streets.

    • Soak-pits/absorbent wells to trap dirt.

    • Excellent use of baked bricks.

  4. Public Buildings:

    • Granaries (food storage)

    • Great Bath (Mohenjodaro – ritual use)

    • Spacious bathrooms with drainage

🧱 Harappan Civilization – Town Planning, Society & Culture

🏠 Building Construction

  • Houses were built on the courtyard system.

  • Each house had 👉 toilet 🚽, bathroom 🚿, kitchen 🍲, bedroom 🛏️ and other rooms.

  • Strong foundations were laid for durability.

  • Houses were constructed along the streets to ensure air, light and cleanliness.

  • They were built on raised platforms for protection from floods.

  • Main doors usually opened towards narrow lanes (streets) rather than the main road → safety from outside movement, noise and pollution.

🏛️ Public Buildings

  • The city was divided into two parts:

    • 🏰 Citadel (Upper part) – Public and state buildings

    • 🏘️ Lower Town – Private residential houses

  • Excavations at Mohenjodaro revealed:

    • A massive building 70m long and 24m wide

    • Another hall measuring 71m long with 20 pillars

  • These structures were probably used for assemblies, discussions, religious or social events.

🛁 Great Bath (Mohenjodaro)

  • Located inside the citadel.

  • Size: 11.88m long, 7.01m wide, 2.43m deep.

  • Constructed with solid burnt bricks, coated with gypsum and tar to prevent seepage.

  • Stairs led to the bottom; water was supplied through a nearby well.

  • Dirty water was drained out through a separate outlet connected to the main drains.

  • Surroundings had bathrooms and changing rooms.

  • 📝 According to archaeologist Ernest Mackay, the Great Bath was probably used by priests for ritual bathing.

🌾 Granaries

  • At Harappa, remains of six rows of granaries have been found inside the citadel.

  • Average size: 18m × 7m.

  • The main gate opened towards the river → goods transported by water were stored here.

🚰 Drainage System

  • Harappan cities had an advanced urban drainage system.

  • Dirty water from houses flowed into covered street drains.

  • Drains were made with baked bricks and plastered with clay and gypsum for strength.

  • Soak-pits/absorbent wells were built at intervals to trap dirt.

  • Professor R.S. Sharma notes → No other Bronze Age civilization gave so much importance to cleanliness as Harappans did.

🔹 Types of Bricks used:

  • Rectangle bricks (ratio 4:2:1)

  • L-shaped bricks (used at corners)

  • Notched bricks (used in wells)

  • T-shaped bricks (used in stairs)

  • Kalibangan: floors made of ornate bricks

  • Chanhudaro: dog’s paw mark chasing a cat found on a brick

👥 Social Life of Harappans

1️⃣ Social Organization

Historian Gordon Childe divided society into four classes:

  1. Educated Class – Priests, Magicians, Astrologers, Physicians

  2. Warriors / Soldiers – Evident from fort remains

  3. Merchants & Artisans – Weavers, Potters, Goldsmiths

  4. Workers & Farmers – Basket makers, Fishermen, Labourers

2️⃣ Food

  • Main crops: Wheat, Rice, Barley, Peas, Sesame, Vegetables

  • Non-vegetarian diet: Meat of turtle, gharial, sheep, goat, pig, fish etc.

  • Fruits: Date, Pomegranate, Watermelon, Lemon, Coconut etc.

3️⃣ Clothing

  • Men wore dhoti, turban, shawl (uttariya), upper garment.

  • Women wore skirts (ghagra), ornaments and head-dresses.

  • Evidence: Statue from Chanhudaro showing a turbaned figure.

4️⃣ Jewellery & Cosmetics

  • Both men and women used ornaments and cosmetics.

  • Rich: Gold, Silver jewellery 💍

  • Common people: Copper, Bronze, Bone ornaments

  • Items: Rings, Earrings, Bangles, Necklaces, Armlets

5️⃣ Entertainment

  • Pastimes: Fishing 🎣, Hunting 🐘, Animal races 🐂, Dancing 💃, Singing 🎶

  • Toys & Games: Terracotta animals, Toy carts, Dice 🎲, Chess-like games

  • Finds: Dancing girl statue, Two-wheeled copper chariot

6️⃣ Technology

  • Skilled in metal work – smelting ores, making alloys.

  • Produced bronze by mixing copper, tin, silver.

  • Flint tools, stone blades, bead-making industry.

  • Raw material sources: Rajasthan (Khetri mines), Bihar (Hazaribagh).

⚰️ Burial Practices (Death Rituals)

According to Sir John Marshall, three types:

  1. Complete Burial –

    • Body laid north-south (mostly).

    • Harappa: one grave found south-north direction in a coffin.

    • Lothal: east-west burials, also couple burials → indicates Sati practice.

    • Largest cemetery: Harappa (R-37).

    • Another burial site: H-cemetery.

  2. Fractional / Partial Burial –

    • Only bones buried after body exposed to animals/birds.

  3. Cremation / Urn Burial –

    • After burning, ashes stored in urns/pots and buried.

🩺 Medical Science

  • Medicines were prepared from herbs, fruits, leaves, flowers, and juices.

  • Powder was made from deer horns.

  • Medicines were also made from sea-foam (zhang).

  • Shilajit was known and used for treatment.

💰 Economic Life

1. Agriculture

  • Crops: barley, wheat, peas, dates, cotton, watermelon, sesame, rye, mustard.

  • Evidence of plough field found at Kalibangan.

  • Stone sickles were used for harvesting.

  • Two-wheeled carts were used for threshing.

  • Bull was the most important animal in agriculture.

2. Animal Husbandry

  • Domesticated animals: goats, sheep, pigs, buffaloes, bulls, elephants.

  • Not familiar with horses.

  • Pets: dogs and cats.

  • Depictions of animals like parrot, peacock, rabbit, deer, bear, cheetah, duck, bull found in seals/paintings.

3. Trade and Commerce

  • Trade was very important for Harappans.

  • Weights and measures were used; weights made of smooth stone (chert).

    • Largest weight: 375 gm, smallest: 0.87 gm.

  • Excavations at Chanhudaro: evidence of a bead-making factory.

  • Occupations: potters, carpenters, goldsmiths, weavers.

  • External trade with Iran, Afghanistan, Mesopotamia, Iraq, Bahrain.

  • Exports included beads, shells, cotton textiles, metals.

  • Imports included copper, tin, precious stones.

  • Seals were used for trade transactions.

  • Trade was carried out by ships and boats from Lothal dockyard.

4. Cottage Industries

  • Pottery (toys, utensils, bricks).

  • Ornaments of ivory, shell, metals.

  • Bead-making (carnelian, steatite, gold, copper, bronze).

  • Terracotta figurines and toys.

🙏 Religious Life

1. Goddess Worship

  • No temples found, but numerous female figurines of terracotta/metal.

  • Suggests worship of Mother Goddess (Shakti).

  • Amulets and seals also depict goddess symbols.

  • Sacrifices, dance, and music performed to please the goddess.

2. Worship of Shiva / Pashupati

  • A famous seal shows a three-faced yogi with horns, seated in meditation, surrounded by wild animals → interpreted as Proto-Shiva (Pashupati).

3. Tree and Animal Worship

  • Peepal tree worshipped (appears on seals).

  • Bull worshipped → later associated with Nandi (Lord Shiva’s vehicle).

4. Linga Worship

  • Stone lingas of various sizes found → earliest evidence of Linga worship.

  • Sacred symbols: Swastika, Cross, and Peepal.

🏛️ Political Life

  • Very little evidence of government.

  • Historian Hunter: Mohenjodaro had a democratic system, not monarchy.

  • Historian Wheeler: administration was run by priests/religious leaders.

  • Evidence of municipal planning suggests organized civic administration.

🎨 Development of Art

1. Sculpture

  • Stone and bronze statues discovered.

  • Famous finds:

    • Dancing Girl (bronze, Mohenjodaro).

    • Male bust (Priest King, Mohenjodaro).

    • Human and animal figurines.

2. Metallurgy

  • Skilled in working with gold, silver, copper, bronze.

3. Textile Industry

  • Evidence of spinning wheel.

  • Used cotton, wool, silk garments.

4. Pottery & Painting

  • Pottery: thick, sandy clay painted in black with geometric patterns.

  • Some pots had animal motifs (bulls, buffaloes, birds).

  • Decorative pottery with multiple colors found at Lothal & Harappa.

5. Music & Dance

  • Bronze statue of dancing girl.

  • Evidence of drums and musical instruments in seals.

6. Seals & Currency Art

  • Over 2000 seals found – animals, humans, and symbols inscribed.

  • Materials: steatite, ivory, clay, copper.

7. Writing System

  • Script was pictographic (375–400 symbols).

  • Written right-to-left and boustrophedon (alternate direction).

  • Still undeciphered → hence, Harappan history remains partly unknown.

👷 Crafts & Technology

  • Bead-making, shell cutting, metallurgy, seal-making.

  • Chanhudaro → a major craft production centre.

  • Bronze tools and ornaments common.

  • Cotton textiles – Harappans were world’s earliest cotton producers.

⚰️ Burial Practices

  • Complete Burials (north-south direction mostly).

  • Fractional Burials (only bones buried).

  • Cremation / Urn Burials (ashes stored in pots).

  • Cemeteries found at Harappa (R-37, H-cemetery).

📉 Decline of Harappan Civilization – Theories

  • Climate change

  • Floods (Damodar, Kosi, Indus)

  • Earthquakes

  • Epidemics / Famines

  • Deforestation → decline of agriculture

  • Drying or shifting of rivers (e.g., Saraswati)

  • External invasion (Aryans) – mentioned in Rigveda as destruction of “Hariyupiya” (Harappa).
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