Kings, Farmers and Towns – Class 12 History Chapter 2 Notes (NCERT/CBSE)

Kings, Farmers and Towns – Class 12 History Chapter 2 Notes (NCERT/CBSE)

CBSE History Class 12
Published on By Amresh Academy

 

📘 Kings, Farmers and Towns

History Class 12th – Chapter 2 (NCERT / CBSE)

❇️ Vedic Civilization (वैदिक सभ्यता)

  • Vedic civilization came after the fall of Harappan Civilization.

  • This was a rural (ग्रामीण) civilization created by Aryans.

  • Timeline – 1500 BCE – 600 BCE.

  • The four Vedas were composed in this period.

  • After this period came the Mahajanapada age where new towns & cities developed.

📚 The Four Vedas

  1. Rigveda (ऋग्वेद)

  2. Yajurveda (यजुर्वेद)

  3. Samaveda (सामवेद)

  4. Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेद)

❇️ A Transitional Period – 6th Century BCE (परिवर्तन काल)

  • 6th century BCE = turning point in Indian history.

  • 🏙️ Rise of states & cities.

  • ⚒️ Iron tools & ploughs → cultivation of hard land possible.

  • 🌾 Paddy (धान) cultivation began → crop yield increased.

  • 💰 Coins circulation boosted trade.

  • 📖 New philosophies emerged → Buddhism & Jainism.

  • Buddhist & Jain texts mention 16 Mahajanapadas.

❇️ Janapada & Mahajanapada (जनपद और महाजनपद)

  • Rigvedic Age – states called Jana (जन).

  • Later Vedic Age – states called Janapada (जनपद).

  • 6th Century BCE – emergence of Mahajanapadas (महाजनपद).

📜 Sources

  • Anguttara Nikaya (Buddhist text)

  • Bhagavati Sutra (Jain text)

🏛️ Major Mahajanapadas

  • Vajji, Magadha, Kosala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, Avanti.

Key Features

  • 👑 Most Mahajanapadas ruled by kings.

  • 🏛️ Some were Gana-Sanghas (ruled by groups).

  • 🏰 Each had a fortified capital (किलेबंद राजधानी).

  • 💰 Rulers collected taxes from farmers & traders.

  • ⚔️ Some states looted neighbors for wealth.

  • 🛡️ Gradually → standing army & bureaucracy developed.

❇️ Gana & Sangha (गण और संघ)

  • Gana → group of many members.

  • Sangha → organization/assembly.

  • Collective rule, decisions by debates in meetings.

  • ❌ Women, Das (slaves), Shudras excluded from meetings → not a true democracy.

  • 🧘‍♂️ Both Lord Buddha & Lord Mahavira were linked with such Ganas.

  • Example → Vajji Sangha, where kings collectively controlled resources like land.

❇️ Magadha Mahajanapada (मगध महाजनपद)

  • Location → modern Bihar.

  • Most powerful Mahajanapada (6th–4th century BCE).

  • 🏰 Capital cities:

    • Early – Rajgriha (fortified, surrounded by hills).

    • Later – Pataliputra (modern Patna).

  • 🔍 Archaeological evidence → Fort walls found at Koshambi.

  • 📝 Historian Dr. Hemchandra Roy Chowdhury:

    • Magadha’s early history starts with King Bimbisara (Haryanka dynasty).

    • Reached peak under Ajatashatru, Mahapadma Nanda.

    • Legacy continued till Ashoka embraced peace after Kalinga War.

❇️ Why Magadha Became So Powerful?

  • ⛰️ Natural safety – surrounded by hills.

  • 🌾 Fertile land – irrigation from Ganga & Son rivers.

  • 👥 Dense population supported agriculture & trade.

  • 🐘 Elephants from forests strengthened the army.

  • 👑 Strong rulers – Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Mahapadma Nanda.

  • ⚒️ Iron mines provided weapons.

  • 📈 Trade growth due to irrigation & surplus crops.

  • 📚 Buddhist & Jain texts credit prosperity to policies of capable rulers.

📘 An Early Empire – Maurya Empire (321–185 BCE)

❇️ Rise of Maurya Empire

  • The rise of Magadha paved the way for the Maurya Empire.

  • Founded by Chandragupta Maurya (321 BCE).

  • Empire extended up to Afghanistan & Balochistan in the west.

❇️ Chandragupta Maurya (चंद्रगुप्त मौर्य)

  • Born in 340 BCE at Patna, Bihar.

  • First Hindu emperor of India.

  • Founder of the Maurya Empire.

  • Guided by his guru Vishnugupta (Chanakya / Kautilya).

❇️ Sources of Information about Maurya Dynasty

📖 Literary & Archaeological Sources:

  • 🗿 Sculptures

  • 📚 Indica (by Megasthenes) – Greek ambassador at Chandragupta’s court.

  • 📖 Arthashastra (by Chanakya/Kautilya) – describes Mauryan politics & economy.

  • 📚 Jain, Buddhist & Puranic texts – provide cultural & historical references.

  • 🏛️ Ashoka’s Inscriptions & Pillars – first ruler to issue messages on natural rocks & polished pillars for officials & subjects.

❇️ Administration in Maurya Empire (प्रशासन)

  • 🏰 Capital – Pataliputra

  • Four provincial centers:

    1. Takshashila

    2. Ujjayini

    3. Tosali

    4. Suvarnagiri

📍 Mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions.

  • Vast empire → from Pakistan to Andhra Pradesh, Orissa & Uttarakhand.

  • Uniform administration was difficult due to geographical diversity (Afghanistan hills vs. Orissa coast).

  • Takshashila & Ujjayini – important trade route centers.

  • Suvarnagiri (स्वर्णगिरि) – gold mining region (Karnataka).

  • Land & river transport essential → traveling between capital & provinces took weeks/months.

❇️ Army System (सैन्य व्यवस्था)

According to Megasthenes:

  • 1 Main Committee with 6 Sub-Committees managed the Mauryan army.

🪖 Six Sub-Committees

  1. Navy operations (नौसेना संचालन)

  2. Transport & food management

  3. Foot soldiers (पैदल सेना)

  4. Cavalry (अश्व सेना)

  5. Chariot forces (रथ सेना)

  6. Weapons management (हथियार संचालन)

❇️ Other Military Arrangements

  • Bullock carts for carrying war equipment.

  • Food supply for soldiers.

  • Fodder arrangement for animals.

  • Appointment of servants & craftsmen for army needs.

❇️ Megasthenes (मेगास्थनीज)

  • Greek ambassador & historian.

  • Stayed at Chandragupta Maurya’s court.

  • Wrote “Indica” → major source on Mauryan society, economy & army.

  • Detailed about the army committees & subcommittees.

📘 Emperor Ashoka (अशोक महान)

❇️ Ashoka – An Interesting Ruler

  • Ashoka is considered one of the most remarkable rulers of Indian history.

  • Identified in the 1830s when James Prinsep (East India Company officer) deciphered Brahmi & Kharoshthi scripts.

  • Inscriptions:

    • 🪧 Prakrit (Brahmi script) – most common

    • 🪧 Kharoshthi – north-west inscriptions

    • 🪧 Aramaic & Greek – Afghanistan region

  • Most inscriptions mention king Piyadassi (प्रियदर्शी = “handsome-faced king”).

  • Some inscriptions mention Ashoka directly → linking both names.

  • After Kalinga War, Ashoka abandoned conquest by war & adopted Dhamma Vijay (धम्म विजय – victory through Dharma).

❇️ Brahmi & Kharoshthi Scripts

  • Deciphered by James Prinsep (1830s).

  • Used in early inscriptions & coins.

  • Brahmi – root of almost all modern Indian scripts.

  • Kharoshthi – read with help of Indo-Greek coins (names written in both Greek & Kharoshthi).

❇️ Piyadassi (प्रियदर्शी)

  • Meaning → “One with a handsome face” or “a king with beautiful appearance”.

  • Title used for Ashoka in inscriptions.

❇️ Coins in Ancient India (प्राचीन भारत के सिक्के)

  • First coins (6th century BCE) – Silver & Copper, used in trade.

  • Issued by kings or rich merchants.

  • Indo-Greek rulers → first to issue coins with names & images of rulers.

  • Kushan rulers → first to issue gold coins (similar to Roman coins).

  • Yaudheyas (Punjab–Haryana) → issued thousands of copper coins.

  • Gupta rulers → issued the finest gold coins of ancient India.

❇️ Battle of Kalinga (261 BCE)

  • Fought 8 years after Ashoka’s coronation.

  • Kalinga Army: 60,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry, 700 elephants.

  • Ashoka’s army was more powerful → Kalinga defeated.

  • War destruction: 1,50,000 killed, lakhs imprisoned.

  • Aftermath: Ashoka shocked by bloodshed → renounced war.

  • Dr. Hemchandra Roy Chowdhury → “First & last war of Ashoka as emperor.”

  • Ashoka vowed to never use weapons again & ruled by Dharma.

❇️ Ashoka’s Kingship Principle (राजनीतिक सिद्धांत)

  • After Kalinga war, Ashoka adopted peace & friendship.

  • In Dhauli & Jaugada inscriptions, he declared:

    • Subjects are like his children.

    • People should be treated with love & justice.

    • ❌ No unnecessary punishments/torture.

❇️ Meaning of Dhamma (धम्म का अर्थ)

Ashoka’s Dhamma = Moral Code of Conduct (not a new religion).

  • Respect for elders.

  • Generosity towards monks & Brahmins.

  • Kindness towards servants & slaves.

  • Tolerance for all religions & traditions.

❇️ Ashoka’s Dhamma (अशोक का धम्म)

  • Simple & universal principles → accepted by all.

  • Aimed at better life in this world & afterlife.

  • Ashoka’s personal faith was Buddhism, but he never forced it.

  • ❌ Did not preach Four Noble Truths or Eightfold Path → focused on practical ethics.

❇️ Promotion of Dhamma

  • Appointed special officers → Dhamma Mahamatras (धम्म महामात्र).

  • Duties:

    • Look after all religious sects.

    • Preach moral values across empire.

    • Care for rich & poor, masters & servants, old & youth.

  • Mentioned in 13th Rock Edict.

❇️ Main Features of Ashoka’s Dhamma

  1. 🧘 Moral life – live simply & virtuously.

  2. 🚫 Control desires – avoid luxury & greed.

  3. 🙏 Religious tolerance – respect all faiths.

  4. 🐘 Non-violence – don’t kill or harm animals/birds.

  5. 💛 Kindness – be compassionate to servants & weak.

  6. 👨‍👩‍👧 Respect for all – parents, teachers, friends, monks & elders.

⚔️ Reasons for the Fall of the Maurya Empire

  • 👑 Weak & incompetent successors (अयोग्य उत्तराधिकारी)

  • 🏛️ Weakness of central government (केंद्रीय शासन की कमजोरी)

  • 📜 Mismanagement of administration (प्रशासनिक अव्यवस्था)

  • 🌆 Tyranny of provincial rulers (प्रांतीय शासकों का अत्याचार)

  • 😈 Cruel & tyrannical rulers (निरंकुश शासक)

  • 🎭 Court conspiracies (षड्यंत्र)

  • 💰 Overemphasis on commercial purpose (व्यापारिक स्वार्थ)

🌟 Importance of the Maurya Empire

  • 🗿 Evidence of marvelous art (शानदार कला के प्रमाण)

  • 🪷 Statues as symbols of empire (मूर्ति – साम्राज्य की पहचान)

  • 📜 Records & inscriptions (शिलालेख – अन्य से भिन्न)

  • 🦚 Ashoka – a great ruler (महान शासक)

  • ⏳ Duration – 150 years only (150 वर्ष का शासन)

  • 📖 In 9th century, historians considered Maurya as the main historical period of India.

👑 Kings & Chieftains of the South

  • 📍 Regions – Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala

  • ⚔️ Cholas, Cheras & Pandyas emerged as powerful rulers

  • 💰 Prosperous & stable states (समृद्ध और स्थिर राज्य)

  • 📖 Mention in Tamil Sangam texts

  • 🌍 Revenue from long-distance trade

  • 🏛️ Satavahana rulers also significant

🛡️ The Role of Sardar (Chief)

  • 👤 Sardar = Powerful person (वंशानुगत हो भी सकता है, नहीं भी)

  • 🙏 Conducts rituals (अनुष्ठान)

  • ⚔️ Leads in wars (युद्ध का नेतृत्व)

  • ⚖️ Mediator in disputes (विवाद निवारण)

  • 🎁 Takes gifts from subordinates & distributes among supporters

  • 🚫 No standing army or officers (स्थायी सेना नहीं होती)

🌞 Divine King Concept

  • 👑 King gains high status by worshipping deity (देव उपासना)

  • 🏛️ Kushan rulers built large statues (Mathura, Afghanistan)

  • 🙌 King presented himself as a god

✨ Gupta Period – Golden Age of India

  • 🏛️ Gupta emperors unified North India

  • 🌍 Brought prosperity, peace & governance

  • 📖 Dr. R. S. Tripathi: 200 years of political unity in North India

  • ⚔️ Freed India from foreign powers

👑 Rulers of Gupta Period

  • Shrigupta

  • Ghatotkach

  • Chandragupta I

  • Samudragupta

  • Ramgupta

  • Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)

  • Kumaragupta

  • Skandagupta

📜 Sources of Gupta History

Literature:

  • Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Brahman Purana

  • Works of Kalidasa (Raghuvansh, Abhijnanshakuntalam)

  • Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa, Devichandraguptam)

  • Sudraka (Mrichchhakatikam)

Inscriptions (शिलालेख):

  • Prayag & Eran (Samudragupta)

  • Mehrauli Iron Pillar (Chandragupta II)

  • Mandsaur, Girnar, Gadhwa (Skandagupta)

Monuments (स्मारक):

  • Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh)

  • Shiva Temple (Bhumra, Nachna Kuthar)

  • Vishnu Temple (Tigwa – Jabalpur)

  • Mehrauli Iron Pillar (Delhi)

🏛️ Gupta Administration

  • 🖋️ Harishena (court poet) praised Samudragupta in Prayag Prashasti

  • 👑 Samudragupta’s policy:

    • Annexed 9 states of Aryavarta

    • Defeated 12 rulers of South but returned kingdoms

    • Kushanas, Shakas, Sri Lanka rulers accepted supremacy

    • Assam, Bengal, Nepal, NW kingdoms sent gifts

  • 🎶 Samudragupta shown playing veena on coin

  • 👑 Chandragupta I – titled Maharajadhiraja

  • 🌟 Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) – patron of Kalidasa & Aryabhata

  • 🏛️ Administrative posts became hereditary (वंशानुगत)

  • 👨‍👩‍👦 Local self-governance with merchants, bankers & guild leaders

📘 Land Donation and New Elite Villagers

🪙 Evidence of Land Donation

  • Found from the early centuries of AD.

  • Inscriptions were carved on stones and mostly on copper plates (proof of land grant).

  • Land was generally donated to religious institutions or Brahmins.

  • Many inscriptions were written in Sanskrit.

👑 Prabhavatigupta

  • Daughter of Chandragupta II (375–415 AD).

  • Married into the Vakataka dynasty of the Deccan.

  • Sanskrit texts say → women had no independent land rights.

  • But inscriptional evidence shows Prabhavatigupta donated land as an owner (exception due to being a queen).

  • Indicates that scriptural rules were not uniformly applied across regions.

📜 Debate among Historians

  • The impact of land donation is still debated.

  • Did it strengthen Brahmins & religious institutions?

  • Did it weaken king’s direct control over land?

👥 King’s Image among People

  • Limited direct evidence available.

  • Historians rely on Jataka tales (Buddhist stories, written later in Pali).

  • Example: Gandatindu Jataka → showed people’s misery under rulers.

🌾 Agricultural Developments (6th century BCE onwards)

  • Use of plough improved productivity.

  • Iron ploughshare (metal blade) increased efficiency.

  • Irrigation systems built collectively: ponds, wells, canals.

  • Boosted agricultural yield significantly.

💰 Coins and Kings

  • Coins made trade easier.

  • Early coins: silver & copper punch-marked coins (with symbols).

  • Coins were issued by kings.

  • First portrait coins → issued by Greek rulers.

  • Gold coins first by Kushans (used in trade & high-value exchange).

  • Large number of Roman coins found in South India (trade links).

  • Most artistic gold coins → issued by Guptas.

📑 Limitations of Inscriptions

  • Letters sometimes lightly engraved, difficult to read.

  • Some inscriptions damaged → missing letters.

  • Ambiguity in understanding the exact meaning.

  • Inscriptions record only royal & elite matters, not daily life of common people.

  • Reflect the perspective of the record-maker, not an unbiased reality.
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