๐ Class 12 Political Science – Chapter 8
๐ Environment and Natural Resources
๐ฑ Environmental Concerns in Global Politics
๐น Decline in cultivable land (เคेเคคी เคฏोเค्เคฏ เค़เคฎीเคจ) + loss of fertility (เคเคชเคाเคเคชเคจ เคी เคเคฎी).
๐น 1.2 billion people in developing countries → no safe water ๐ฑ.
๐น 2.6 billion people → no access to sanitation ๐ฝ (Human Development Report, 2006).
๐น Loss of biodiversity (เคैเคต เคตिเคตिเคงเคคा เคा เคจुเคเคธाเคจ) due to:
- Habitat destruction ๐️
- Deforestation ๐ณ (for personal gains)๐น Ozone layer depletion (เคเค़ोเคจ เคชเคฐเคค เคी เคเคฎी) → danger to ecosystem + human health.๐น Pollution of coastal waters due to land-based activities ๐️.๐น From 1960s onwards, environmental consequences of economic growth → political issue.๐น UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) started global conferences ๐.๐น Earth Summit (Rio Summit, 1992, Brazil ๐ง๐ท):
- Conventions on ๐ก️ Climate Change, ๐ณ Biodiversity, ๐ฒ Forestry.
- Introduced Agenda 21 → list of sustainable development practices.
๐ Protection of Global ‘Commons’
๐น Commons = resources shared collectively (เคธाเคฎूเคนिเค เคธंเคธाเคงเคจ, เคต्เคฏเค्เคคिเคเคค เคจเคนीं).
๐น Global Commons (เคตैเคถ्เคตिเค เคธाเคा เคธंเคธाเคงเคจ):
- Earth’s atmosphere ๐
- Antarctica ❄️
- Ocean floor ๐
- Outer space ๐๐น Agreements signed:
- Antarctic Treaty (1959)
- Montreal Protocol (1987) – to protect ozone layer.
- Antarctic Environmental Protocol (1991)๐น North–South inequalities (เคเคค्เคคเคฐ-เคฆเค्เคทिเคฃ เค เคธเคฎाเคจเคคाเคँ) affect management of global commons.
⚖️ Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
๐น North vs South Conflict:
- Northern countries ๐ → want equal responsibility for ecological conservation.
- Southern countries ๐ → argue degradation caused by industrialisation of developed nations.๐น Rio Summit (1992):
- Special needs of developing countries accepted.
- Rule-making for environment must ensure equity (เคจ्เคฏाเคฏเคธंเคเคคเคคा).๐น UNFCCC (1992):
- Countries must act on equity principle.
- Recognised → major share of greenhouse gas emissions from developed nations.
- Developing nations (India ๐ฎ๐ณ, China ๐จ๐ณ) → per capita emissions low.๐น Kyoto Protocol (1997):
- Industrialised countries to cut greenhouse gas emissions ๐ซ️.
- Exemptions for developing countries (India, China).
✨ Exam Tip:
๐ Rio Summit (1992), UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol = เคธเคฌเคธे เค़्เคฏाเคฆा เคชूเคे เคाเคจे เคตाเคฒे topics เคนैं।
๐️ Commons Property Resources
๐น Commons = shared property (เคธाเคा เคธंเคชเคค्เคคि) with rules → members have rights + duties regarding usage.
๐น Problems faced:
- Privatisation (เคจिเคीเคเคฐเคฃ)
- Agricultural intensification (เคृเคทि เคा เคคीเคต्เคฐिเคเคฐเคฃ)
- Population growth (เคเคจเคธंเค्เคฏा เคตृเคฆ्เคงि)
- Ecosystem degradation (เคชाเคฐिเคธ्เคฅिเคคिเค เคคंเคค्เคฐ เคा เคน्เคฐाเคธ)๐น Result → Common property dwindling in size (เคงीเคฐे-เคงीเคฐे เคเคฎ เคนो เคฐเคนी เคนै).
๐ฎ๐ณ India’s Stand on Environmental Issues
๐น Kyoto Protocol (1997):
- India ratified in Aug 2002.
- Exemptions for developing countries (India & China).๐น G-8 Meeting (June 2005):
- India highlighted → per capita emissions of developing countries = very low compared to developed ones.๐น Indian Government Initiatives:
- Energy Conservation Act (2011) ⚡
- Electricity Act (2003) ๐ก
- Participation in global environmental efforts ๐.๐น Earth Summit Review (1997):
- India demanded → developed nations must provide financial resources + clean technologies to developing nations.
๐ณ Environmental Movements
๐น Volunteers + local groups are key in fighting environmental degradation.
๐น Forest Movements:
- Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, Africa, India.
- Aim → stop forest clearing ๐ฒ.๐น Anti-Mining Groups:
- Protest against mineral extraction ⛏️ → displacement of communities.๐น Anti-Dam Movements:
- Example: Narmada Bachao Andolan (India) ๐️.
๐ Resource Geopolitics
๐น Meaning → who gets what, when, where, how (เคौเคจ เคธंเคธाเคงเคจ เคเคฌ, เคเคนाँ เคเคฐ เคैเคธे เคชाเคเคा).
๐น During Cold War, Northern countries ensured steady flow of resources.
๐น Oil = most strategic resource:
- West Asia (Gulf region) = ~30% of global oil production ๐ข️.
- Huge wealth → political struggles & wars.๐น Water as a resource:
- Freshwater scarcity → regional conflicts ๐ฑ.
- Countries sharing rivers → often involved in disputes & military conflicts.
๐ง๐ค๐ง The Indigenous People and their Rights
๐น Definition (UN): Indigenous = descendants of original inhabitants before outsiders arrived.
๐น Demands → equal treatment + recognition of identity.
๐น Regions: Central & South America, Africa, India, South-East Asia.
๐น In India → Scheduled Tribes (constitute ~8% of population).
๐น Issues:
- Neglected in domestic + international politics for long.
- Appeal to governments to recognise their rights & identity.
✨ Exam Tip:
๐ Indigenous Rights + Resource Geopolitics + India’s Stand on Kyoto Protocol = เคฌाเคฐ-เคฌाเคฐ exam me aate hain।
✨ Facts That Matter
๐ฑ Environmental Concerns in Global Politics
1️⃣ Agricultural land → losing fertility & grazing capacity (เคเคชเคाเคเคชเคจ เคเคฐ เคเคฐाเค เค्เคทเคฎเคคा เคเค เคฐเคนी เคนै).
2️⃣ Depletion of water resources ๐ฑ.
3️⃣ Loss of biodiversity ๐ฆ due to deforestation & habitat destruction.
4️⃣ Real danger to ecosystem & marine life ๐ because of coastal pollution.
๐ Environmental Consequences & UNEP
๐น From 1960s onwards, environmental issues became political.
๐น Book: Limits to Growth (1972) ๐ highlighted dangers of unchecked economic growth.
๐น UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) → started global coordination for environmental protection.
๐ Earth Summit (Rio de Janeiro, 1992)
๐น Exposed differences between Global North vs Global South:
- Global North (1st world countries): Concerned with ozone depletion + global warming.
- Global South (3rd world countries): Focused on economic development + sustainable environment (Agenda 21).
๐ Global Commons
๐น Areas outside any one country’s control → require common governance.
๐น Examples:
- Earth’s atmosphere ๐
- Antarctica ❄️
- Ocean floor ๐
- Outer space ๐๐น Linked with industrialisation & technological development.
⚖️ Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
๐น Principle adopted in Rio Declaration (1992).
๐น Meaning → Developed & developing nations share responsibility, but in different capacities.
๐น UNFCCC (1992):
- Protect climate system on the basis of equity.
- Developed nations → largest greenhouse gas emitters ๐ซ️.
- Developing nations (India ๐ฎ๐ณ, China ๐จ๐ณ) → exempted in Kyoto Protocol (1997, Japan).
๐️ Common Property Resources
๐น Resources managed collectively by a group with rights + duties.
๐น Example: Sacred groves on state-owned forest land ๐ณ.
๐น Threatened by → privatisation, population growth, ecosystem degradation.
๐ฎ๐ณ India’s Stand on Environmental Issues
๐น Signed & ratified Kyoto Protocol (1997) in Aug 2002.
๐น Opposed binding commitments under UNFCCC → supported common but differentiated responsibilities.
๐น Initiatives by India:
- National Auto Fuel Policy ๐
- Electricity Act (2003) ⚡
- National Mission on Biodiesel ๐ฑ๐น Supports SAARC collective approach on environmental issues.
๐ณ Environmental Movements
๐น Aim → to fight environmental degradation at local & global levels.
๐น Types:
- Forest Movements (Mexico, Brazil, India) ๐ฒ
- Anti-Mining Movements ⛏️
- Anti-Dam Movements – e.g., Narmada Bachao Andolan (India) ๐️
๐ Resource Geopolitics
๐น Meaning → who gets what, when, where, how.
๐น During Cold War, North ensured flow of resources by:
- Military deployment near resource-rich areas ๐ช
- Stockpiling strategic resources ๐ข️
- Supporting friendly governments.๐น Oil = most crucial resource → history of petroleum = history of wars ⚔️.๐น Water scarcity → major source of 21st-century conflicts ๐ฑ.
๐ง๐ค๐ง Indigenous People & Their Rights
๐น Indigenous = Original inhabitants before outsiders arrived.
๐น Regions: Island states, Central & South America, Africa, India, South-East Asia.
๐น Issues:
- Neglected in domestic + global politics.
- Demand equal rights, cultural protection & recognition.๐น World Council of Indigenous People (1975):
- First indigenous NGO to get consultative status in UN.
✨ Quick Exam Reminder:
๐ Earth Summit (1992), Kyoto Protocol (1997), Rio Declaration, UNFCCC, Indigenous Rights = เคธเคฌ เคธे เค़्เคฏाเคฆा เคชूเคे เคाเคจे เคตाเคฒे topics।
๐ Words That Matter
๐ Earth Summit
๐น A conference held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (June 1992) on Environment & Development.
๐น Aim → To deal with global environmental problems.
๐ Agenda 21
๐น A list of sustainable development practices recommended by the Earth Summit (1992).
๐น Purpose → To ensure development with sustainability (เคธเคคเคค เคตिเคाเคธ).
๐ Kyoto Protocol
๐น An international agreement (1997, Kyoto – Japan ๐ฏ๐ต).
๐น Target → Industrialised countries must cut greenhouse gas emissions.
๐น Based on principles of UNFCCC (1992).
๐ UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)
๐น Signed in 1992.
๐น Stated that parties must protect the climate system on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
๐ง๐ค๐ง Indigenous People
๐น Descendants of original inhabitants of a territory, before outsiders (different culture) arrived.
๐น Found in → Central & South America, Africa, India, South-East Asia.
๐น Demand → Equal status, rights & recognition of their identity.
✨ Exam Tip:
๐ Earth Summit (1992), Agenda 21, Kyoto Protocol (1997), UNFCCC, Indigenous People = direct short-answer definitions ke liye most important.
