📘 Class 12 Political Science – Chapter 8
🌍 Environment and Natural Resources
🌱 Environmental Concerns in Global Politics
🔹 Decline in cultivable land (खेती योग्य ज़मीन) + loss of fertility (उपजाऊपन की कमी).
🔹 1.2 billion people in developing countries → no safe water 🚱.
🔹 2.6 billion people → no access to sanitation 🚽 (Human Development Report, 2006).
🔹 Loss of biodiversity (जैव विविधता का नुकसान) due to:
- Habitat destruction 🏞️
- Deforestation 🌳 (for personal gains)🔹 Ozone layer depletion (ओज़ोन परत की कमी) → danger to ecosystem + human health.🔹 Pollution of coastal waters due to land-based activities 🏖️.🔹 From 1960s onwards, environmental consequences of economic growth → political issue.🔹 UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) started global conferences 🌐.🔹 Earth Summit (Rio Summit, 1992, Brazil 🇧🇷):
- Conventions on 🌡️ Climate Change, 🌳 Biodiversity, 🌲 Forestry.
- Introduced Agenda 21 → list of sustainable development practices.
🌐 Protection of Global ‘Commons’
🔹 Commons = resources shared collectively (सामूहिक संसाधन, व्यक्तिगत नहीं).
🔹 Global Commons (वैश्विक साझा संसाधन):
- Earth’s atmosphere 🌍
- Antarctica ❄️
- Ocean floor 🌊
- Outer space 🚀🔹 Agreements signed:
- Antarctic Treaty (1959)
- Montreal Protocol (1987) – to protect ozone layer.
- Antarctic Environmental Protocol (1991)🔹 North–South inequalities (उत्तर-दक्षिण असमानताएँ) affect management of global commons.
⚖️ Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
🔹 North vs South Conflict:
- Northern countries 🌎 → want equal responsibility for ecological conservation.
- Southern countries 🌏 → argue degradation caused by industrialisation of developed nations.🔹 Rio Summit (1992):
- Special needs of developing countries accepted.
- Rule-making for environment must ensure equity (न्यायसंगतता).🔹 UNFCCC (1992):
- Countries must act on equity principle.
- Recognised → major share of greenhouse gas emissions from developed nations.
- Developing nations (India 🇮🇳, China 🇨🇳) → per capita emissions low.🔹 Kyoto Protocol (1997):
- Industrialised countries to cut greenhouse gas emissions 🌫️.
- Exemptions for developing countries (India, China).
✨ Exam Tip:
👉 Rio Summit (1992), UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol = सबसे ज़्यादा पूछे जाने वाले topics हैं।
🏞️ Commons Property Resources
🔹 Commons = shared property (साझा संपत्ति) with rules → members have rights + duties regarding usage.
🔹 Problems faced:
- Privatisation (निजीकरण)
- Agricultural intensification (कृषि का तीव्रिकरण)
- Population growth (जनसंख्या वृद्धि)
- Ecosystem degradation (पारिस्थितिक तंत्र का ह्रास)🔹 Result → Common property dwindling in size (धीरे-धीरे कम हो रही है).
🇮🇳 India’s Stand on Environmental Issues
🔹 Kyoto Protocol (1997):
- India ratified in Aug 2002.
- Exemptions for developing countries (India & China).🔹 G-8 Meeting (June 2005):
- India highlighted → per capita emissions of developing countries = very low compared to developed ones.🔹 Indian Government Initiatives:
- Energy Conservation Act (2011) ⚡
- Electricity Act (2003) 💡
- Participation in global environmental efforts 🌍.🔹 Earth Summit Review (1997):
- India demanded → developed nations must provide financial resources + clean technologies to developing nations.
🌳 Environmental Movements
🔹 Volunteers + local groups are key in fighting environmental degradation.
🔹 Forest Movements:
- Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, Africa, India.
- Aim → stop forest clearing 🌲.🔹 Anti-Mining Groups:
- Protest against mineral extraction ⛏️ → displacement of communities.🔹 Anti-Dam Movements:
- Example: Narmada Bachao Andolan (India) 🏞️.
🌍 Resource Geopolitics
🔹 Meaning → who gets what, when, where, how (कौन संसाधन कब, कहाँ और कैसे पाएगा).
🔹 During Cold War, Northern countries ensured steady flow of resources.
🔹 Oil = most strategic resource:
- West Asia (Gulf region) = ~30% of global oil production 🛢️.
- Huge wealth → political struggles & wars.🔹 Water as a resource:
- Freshwater scarcity → regional conflicts 🚱.
- Countries sharing rivers → often involved in disputes & military conflicts.
🧑🤝🧑 The Indigenous People and their Rights
🔹 Definition (UN): Indigenous = descendants of original inhabitants before outsiders arrived.
🔹 Demands → equal treatment + recognition of identity.
🔹 Regions: Central & South America, Africa, India, South-East Asia.
🔹 In India → Scheduled Tribes (constitute ~8% of population).
🔹 Issues:
- Neglected in domestic + international politics for long.
- Appeal to governments to recognise their rights & identity.
✨ Exam Tip:
👉 Indigenous Rights + Resource Geopolitics + India’s Stand on Kyoto Protocol = बार-बार exam me aate hain।
✨ Facts That Matter
🌱 Environmental Concerns in Global Politics
1️⃣ Agricultural land → losing fertility & grazing capacity (उपजाऊपन और चराई क्षमता घट रही है).
2️⃣ Depletion of water resources 🚱.
3️⃣ Loss of biodiversity 🦋 due to deforestation & habitat destruction.
4️⃣ Real danger to ecosystem & marine life 🌊 because of coastal pollution.
📖 Environmental Consequences & UNEP
🔹 From 1960s onwards, environmental issues became political.
🔹 Book: Limits to Growth (1972) 📕 highlighted dangers of unchecked economic growth.
🔹 UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) → started global coordination for environmental protection.
🌍 Earth Summit (Rio de Janeiro, 1992)
🔹 Exposed differences between Global North vs Global South:
- Global North (1st world countries): Concerned with ozone depletion + global warming.
- Global South (3rd world countries): Focused on economic development + sustainable environment (Agenda 21).
🌐 Global Commons
🔹 Areas outside any one country’s control → require common governance.
🔹 Examples:
- Earth’s atmosphere 🌍
- Antarctica ❄️
- Ocean floor 🌊
- Outer space 🚀🔹 Linked with industrialisation & technological development.
⚖️ Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
🔹 Principle adopted in Rio Declaration (1992).
🔹 Meaning → Developed & developing nations share responsibility, but in different capacities.
🔹 UNFCCC (1992):
- Protect climate system on the basis of equity.
- Developed nations → largest greenhouse gas emitters 🌫️.
- Developing nations (India 🇮🇳, China 🇨🇳) → exempted in Kyoto Protocol (1997, Japan).
🏞️ Common Property Resources
🔹 Resources managed collectively by a group with rights + duties.
🔹 Example: Sacred groves on state-owned forest land 🌳.
🔹 Threatened by → privatisation, population growth, ecosystem degradation.
🇮🇳 India’s Stand on Environmental Issues
🔹 Signed & ratified Kyoto Protocol (1997) in Aug 2002.
🔹 Opposed binding commitments under UNFCCC → supported common but differentiated responsibilities.
🔹 Initiatives by India:
- National Auto Fuel Policy 🚗
- Electricity Act (2003) ⚡
- National Mission on Biodiesel 🌱🔹 Supports SAARC collective approach on environmental issues.
🌳 Environmental Movements
🔹 Aim → to fight environmental degradation at local & global levels.
🔹 Types:
- Forest Movements (Mexico, Brazil, India) 🌲
- Anti-Mining Movements ⛏️
- Anti-Dam Movements – e.g., Narmada Bachao Andolan (India) 🏞️
🌍 Resource Geopolitics
🔹 Meaning → who gets what, when, where, how.
🔹 During Cold War, North ensured flow of resources by:
- Military deployment near resource-rich areas 🪖
- Stockpiling strategic resources 🛢️
- Supporting friendly governments.🔹 Oil = most crucial resource → history of petroleum = history of wars ⚔️.🔹 Water scarcity → major source of 21st-century conflicts 🚱.
🧑🤝🧑 Indigenous People & Their Rights
🔹 Indigenous = Original inhabitants before outsiders arrived.
🔹 Regions: Island states, Central & South America, Africa, India, South-East Asia.
🔹 Issues:
- Neglected in domestic + global politics.
- Demand equal rights, cultural protection & recognition.🔹 World Council of Indigenous People (1975):
- First indigenous NGO to get consultative status in UN.
✨ Quick Exam Reminder:
👉 Earth Summit (1992), Kyoto Protocol (1997), Rio Declaration, UNFCCC, Indigenous Rights = सब से ज़्यादा पूछे जाने वाले topics।
📝 Words That Matter
🌎 Earth Summit
🔹 A conference held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (June 1992) on Environment & Development.
🔹 Aim → To deal with global environmental problems.
📑 Agenda 21
🔹 A list of sustainable development practices recommended by the Earth Summit (1992).
🔹 Purpose → To ensure development with sustainability (सतत विकास).
📜 Kyoto Protocol
🔹 An international agreement (1997, Kyoto – Japan 🇯🇵).
🔹 Target → Industrialised countries must cut greenhouse gas emissions.
🔹 Based on principles of UNFCCC (1992).
🌐 UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)
🔹 Signed in 1992.
🔹 Stated that parties must protect the climate system on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
🧑🤝🧑 Indigenous People
🔹 Descendants of original inhabitants of a territory, before outsiders (different culture) arrived.
🔹 Found in → Central & South America, Africa, India, South-East Asia.
🔹 Demand → Equal status, rights & recognition of their identity.
✨ Exam Tip:
👉 Earth Summit (1992), Agenda 21, Kyoto Protocol (1997), UNFCCC, Indigenous People = direct short-answer definitions ke liye most important.
