📚 Class 9 – Political Science
📘 Chapter 4: Working of Institutions
💠 How Is a Major Policy Decision Taken?
🔹 A Government Order (सरकारी आदेश)
🗓 On 13 August 1990, the Government of India issued an Office Memorandum (कार्यालय ज्ञापन).
- It introduced 27% job reservation (रोजगार आरक्षण) for a new category called Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC) (सामाजिक और शैक्षिक रूप से पिछड़ी जातियाँ).
- SC (Scheduled Castes – अनुसूचित जातियाँ) and ST (Scheduled Tribes – अनुसूचित जनजातियाँ) were excluded.
- Only backward classes (पिछड़ी जातियाँ) were eligible for this quota. ✅
🔹 The Decision Makers (निर्णय लेने वाले)
Who decides such major policies? It involves key functionaries (मुख्य कार्यकारी अधिकारी) of India:
- President (राष्ट्रपति) – Head of the State and highest formal authority (उच्चतम आधिकारिक प्राधिकारी).
- Prime Minister (प्रधान मंत्री) – Head of the Government; takes most decisions in Cabinet meetings (मंत्रिपरिषद की बैठकें).
- Parliament (संसद) – Consists of the President and two Houses (Lok Sabha (लोकसभा) & Rajya Sabha (राज्यसभा)).
- Prime Minister must have majority support (बहुमत समर्थन) in Lok Sabha to pass a memorandum.
🔹 Controversy & Resolution (विवाद और समाधान)
- The Office Memorandum sparked heated debate (तगड़ी बहस):
- Some argued it denied equality of opportunity (समान अवसर अस्वीकार) to non-backward communities.
- Others said it provided fair opportunity (न्यायपूर्ण अवसर) to underrepresented communities in government jobs.
- Supreme Court of India (भारत का सर्वोच्च न्यायालय) resolved the dispute in ‘Indira Sawhney & Others vs Union of India (1992)’.
- The Court validated (वैध ठहराया) the Government order. ✅
- Since then, this policy has been implemented (लागू) continuously.
💠 Need for Political Institutions (राजनीतिक संस्थाओं की आवश्यकता)
- Modern democracies have arrangements called institutions (संस्थाएँ).
- Democracy works well when institutions perform their assigned functions (निर्धारित कार्य).
🔹 Functions & Challenges of Institutions (संस्थाओं के कार्य और चुनौतियाँ)
- Institutions involve meetings (बैठकें), committees (समितियाँ), and routines (नियमित प्रक्रियाएँ) → may cause delays (विलंब) and complications (जटिलताएँ). ⏳
- These delays are sometimes useful (उपयोगी) as they allow consultation (सलाह-मशविरा) with a wider set of people.
- Institutions make it difficult to take quick good decisions (अच्छा निर्णय जल्दी लेना मुश्किल), but also prevent rash bad decisions (गलत निर्णय जल्दी लेना मुश्किल).
✅ Exam Tip:
- Remember ‘Indira Sawhney case, 1992’.
- President = Head of State 🏛, PM = Head of Government 👔, Parliament = Decision approval 🏛📜.
Institutions = checks & balances ⚖️ to avoid rash decisions.
💠 Parliament
🔹 Decision Making in Parliament
- Decisions are not directly taken (सीधे नहीं लिए जाते) in Parliament, but parliamentary discussions (संसदीय चर्चाएँ) influence (प्रभावित करना) and shape (गढ़ना) the government’s decision (सरकारी निर्णय).
- Discussions put pressure (दबाव) on the government to act.
- If Parliament is not in favour (पक्ष में नहीं), the government cannot proceed or implement the decision. ❌
🔹 Why Do We Need Parliament?
- An assembly of elected representatives (चुने हुए प्रतिनिधियों की सभा) is called Parliament, which exercises supreme political authority (सर्वोच्च राजनीतिक प्राधिकरण) on behalf of the people.
- At the state level, it is called Legislature (विधानमंडल) or Legislative Assembly (विधान सभा).
- Name varies in different countries, but every democracy (लोकतंत्र) has such an assembly.
🔹 Functions of Parliament
- Parliament is the final authority (अंतिम प्राधिकरण) for making laws (कानून). ⚖️
- Government can take decisions only with Parliament’s support (संसद का समर्थन).
- Parliament controls government funds (सरकारी धन). 💰
- Parliament is the highest forum (उच्चतम मंच) for discussion (चर्चा) and debate (बहस) on public issues (सार्वजनिक मुद्दे) and national policy (राष्ट्रीय नीति). 💬
💠 Two Houses of Parliament
- Most large countries divide Parliament into two houses (दो सदन):
- First House (प्रत्यक्ष चुना गया) – Directly elected by people, exercises real power (वास्तविक शक्ति).
- Second House (अप्रत्यक्ष चुना गया) – Indirectly elected, performs special functions (विशेष कार्य) like protecting states/regions’ interests (राज्य/क्षेत्रीय हित).
🔹 Parliament in India
- India has 2 Houses (दो सदन):
- Rajya Sabha (Council of States – राज्यों की परिषद)
- Lok Sabha (House of the People – लोकसभा)
- President of India (भारत के राष्ट्रपति) is part of Parliament but not a member of either House.
- All laws come into force (लागू होते हैं) only after President’s assent (राष्ट्रपति की स्वीकृति). ✅
🔹 Powers of Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha
- Rajya Sabha – Some special powers (विशेष शक्तियाँ) over states.
- Lok Sabha – Exercises supreme power (सर्वोच्च शक्ति) in most matters.
Key Points:
- Ordinary laws must pass both Houses. If there’s a difference → joint session (संयुक्त सत्र) is held.
- Lok Sabha’s view usually prevails due to larger number of members.
- Money matters (वित्तीय मामले) → Lok Sabha has more powers. 💰
- Lok Sabha controls the Council of Ministers (मंत्रिपरिषद का नियंत्रण). 👔
✅ Exam Tip:
- Lok Sabha = People’s House 🏛, Rajya Sabha = States’ House 🏛
- President’s assent is necessary for all laws.
- In joint sessions, Lok Sabha’s view prevails.
💠 Political Executive (राजनीतिक कार्यपालिका)
🔹 Overview
- At different levels of government, functionaries take day-to-day decisions (दैनिक निर्णय) but do not exercise supreme power (सर्वोच्च शक्ति) on behalf of the people.
- All these functionaries collectively form the Executive (कार्यपालिका).
- The executive is responsible for the execution (कार्यान्वयन) of government policies.
- In simple terms, when we talk about the government, we usually mean the executive. ✅
💠 Political vs Permanent Executive
- Political Executive (राजनीतिक कार्यपालिका)
- Elected by the people for a specific period (निर्धारित अवधि).
- Political leaders taking major decisions (बड़े निर्णय) fall under this category. 🗳️
- Permanent Executive / Civil Services (स्थायी कार्यपालिका / नागरिक सेवा)
- Appointed on a long-term basis (दीर्घकालिक आधार).
- Officers working in civil services are called Civil Servants (नागरिक अधिकारी).
- They remain in office even if the ruling party (शासक दल) changes.
- Work under political executives and assist in day-to-day administration (दैनिक प्रशासन). 🏢
🔹 Why Is the Minister More Powerful than the Civil Servant? (मंत्री नागरिक अधिकारी से अधिक शक्तिशाली क्यों?)
- In a democracy, the will of the people (जनता की इच्छा) is supreme.
- Minister = Elected representative (चुना हुआ प्रतिनिधि) → empowered to exercise the people’s will (जनता की इच्छा लागू करना).
- Minister is answerable (जवाबदेह) to the people for all consequences of decisions. ✅
- Ministers rely on expert advice (विशेषज्ञ सलाह) for technical matters before making decisions. 💡
💠 Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (प्रधान मंत्री और मंत्रिपरिषद)
🔹 Appointment of Prime Minister
- No direct election (प्रत्यक्ष चुनाव) for Prime Minister.
- President (राष्ट्रपति) appoints the PM:
- Leader of majority party or coalition (बहुमत दल/संगठन) in Lok Sabha.
- If no majority, President appoints the person most likely to secure majority (बहुमत प्राप्त करने वाला).
- Tenure = as long as PM leads the majority party/coalition (जब तक बहुमत पार्टी या गठबंधन का नेता).
🔹 Appointment of Other Ministers
- PM recommends other ministers → usually from majority party or coalition.
- Ministers must be members of Parliament (सदस्य होना आवश्यक).
- Non-MPs can be ministers but must get elected within 6 months. ⏳
💠 Council of Ministers (मंत्रिपरिषद)
- Official body including all ministers – usually 60–80 ministers (60–80 मंत्री).
- Cabinet Ministers (कैबिनेट मंत्री)
- Top-level leaders in charge of major ministries (मुख्य मंत्रालय).
- Inner ring of Council → about 25 ministers. 👑
- Ministers of State with Independent Charge (स्वतंत्र प्रभार वाले राज्य मंत्री)
- In charge of smaller ministries (छोटे मंत्रालय).
- Attend Cabinet meetings only when specially invited.
- Ministers of State (राज्य मंत्री)
- Junior ministers assisting Cabinet Ministers & Ministers of State with Independent Charge.
🔹 Cabinet Form of Government (मंत्रिपरिषद रूपी शासन)
- Most decisions in Parliamentary democracies (संसदीय लोकतंत्र) are taken in Cabinet meetings (कैबिनेट बैठकें).
- Every ministry has Secretaries (सचिव) → civil servants providing background information (पृष्ठभूमि जानकारी).
- Cabinet works as a team, assisted by the Cabinet Secretariat (कैबिनेट सचिवालय). 🏛️
✅ Exam Tip:
- Minister = people’s representative 🗳️, Civil Servant = expert administrator 👔
- Cabinet = inner decision-making body ⚖️
PM = leader of majority party or coalition 🏛️
💠 Powers of the Prime Minister (प्रधान मंत्री के शक्तियाँ)
- Head of Government (सरकार के प्रमुख) → chairs Cabinet meetings (कैबिनेट बैठकें) 🏛️
- Coordinates the work of different departments (विभिन्न विभाग) 🔄
- Final authority (अंतिम अधिकार) in case of disagreements between departments ⚖️
- Exercises general supervision (सामान्य पर्यवेक्षण) of all ministries 👀
- All ministers work under PM’s leadership (PM की अगुवाई में कार्य)
- Distributes & redistributes work among ministers (मंत्रियों के बीच कार्य वितरण) 📋
- Power to dismiss ministers (मंत्रियों को हटा देना) ❌
- If PM resigns, entire ministry resigns (संपूर्ण मंत्रिपरिषद इस्तीफा देती है)
💠 The President (राष्ट्रपति)
- Head of the State (राज्य प्रमुख) 🏛️
- Supervises overall functioning (समग्र कार्य संचालन) of political institutions to ensure harmony (संगति) and achieve state objectives (राज्य के उद्देश्यों)
🔹 Election of the President (राष्ट्रपति का चुनाव)
- Indirect election (अप्रत्यक्ष चुनाव) → not elected directly by people
- Candidate must secure majority votes (बहुमत मत) from:
- Members of Parliament (MPs – संसद सदस्य)
- Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs – विधान सभा सदस्य) 🗳️
🔹 Powers of the President (राष्ट्रपति की शक्तियाँ)
- All governmental activities (सभी सरकारी गतिविधियाँ) happen in the name of the President (राष्ट्रपति के नाम पर) 📝
- All laws and major policy decisions (कानून और प्रमुख नीतिगत निर्णय) issued in President’s name ⚖️
- Major appointments (प्रमुख नियुक्तियाँ):
- Chief Justice of India
- Judges of Supreme Court & High Courts
- Governors of States
- Election Commissioners
- Ambassadors to other countries 🌐
- International treaties & agreements (अंतरराष्ट्रीय समझौते) signed in President’s name 🌏
- Supreme Commander of Defence Forces (सशस्त्र बलों के सर्वोच्च सेनानायक) 🪖
- President exercises powers on advice of Council of Ministers (मंत्रिपरिषद की सलाह पर)
- Only independent power → appoint Prime Minister (प्रधान मंत्री) by own will 👔
✅ Exam Tip:
- PM = Head of Government 🏛️, final authority in Cabinet & departmental decisions
- President = Head of State 🏛️, symbolic + formal power; acts on Council of Ministers’ advice
- President = supreme commander of Defence Forces 🪖, signs all laws & international agreements
💠 The Judiciary (न्यायपालिका)
🔹 Overview
- All courts at different levels together form the Judiciary (न्यायपालिका) ⚖️
- Indian Judiciary (भारतीय न्यायपालिका) consists of:
- Supreme Court (सर्वोच्च न्यायालय) – for the entire nation 🏛️
- High Courts (उच्च न्यायालय) – in each state
- District Courts (ज़िला न्यायालय)
- Local level courts (स्थानीय न्यायालय)
- Integrated Judiciary (एकीकृत न्यायपालिका) → Supreme Court controls judicial administration.
- Supreme Court decisions are binding (अनिवार्य) on all other courts. ✅
🔹 Jurisdiction of Supreme Court (न्याय क्षेत्र)
- Can take up disputes between:
- Citizens of the country 🧑🤝🧑
- Citizens & Government 🏛️
- Two or more state governments 🗺️
- Union & State governments 🌐
🔹 Independence of Judiciary (न्यायपालिका की स्वतंत्रता)
- Judiciary is not under control (नियंत्रण में नहीं) of Legislature or Executive
- Judges do not act on government directions (सरकार के निर्देश) or ruling party wishes ❌
- Appointment of Judges (न्यायाधीशों की नियुक्ति):
- President appoints Supreme Court & High Court judges on PM’s advice & in consultation with Chief Justice of India (CJI)
- Removal is extremely difficult → only by impeachment motion (महाभियोग प्रस्ताव) passed by two-thirds of both Houses of Parliament 🏛️
💠 Powers of Judiciary (न्यायपालिका की शक्तियाँ)
- Interpret Constitution (संविधान की व्याख्या करना)
- Supreme Court & High Courts can interpret constitutional provisions 📜
- Judicial Review (न्यायिक समीक्षा)
- Can examine constitutional validity (संवैधानिक वैधता) of laws or executive actions when challenged
- Protection of Basic Structure (मूल संरचना का संरक्षण)
- Supreme Court ruled Parliament cannot alter core principles (मूलभूत सिद्धांत) of Constitution 🏛️
- Guardian of Fundamental Rights (मौलिक अधिकारों के संरक्षक)
- Judiciary ensures rights of citizens are protected ✊
- Public Interest Litigation (जनहित याचिका – PIL)
- Anyone can approach courts if government action harms public interest (सार्वजनिक हित को नुकसान) ⚖️
✅ Exam Tip:
- Supreme Court = final authority 🏛️
- High Courts = state-level authority 🏢
- Judges = independent, hard to remove 👨⚖️
- PIL = citizens can safeguard public interest ⚖️
Judicial Review = check on legislature & executive 📜
