🎓 Class 11 – History
📘 Chapter 2: An Empire Across Three Continents
📚 Book: Themes in World History
📅 Session: 2025–26
👨🏫 Presented by: Amresh kumar
📚 Sources of Roman History
There is a rich collection of sources to study Roman History — texts (पाठ्य सामग्री), documents, and material remains.
🏺 1. Archaeological Sources (पुरातात्त्विक स्रोत)
•Amphitheater (खुले मैदान का रंगमंच)
•Amphorae (दो हैंडल वाला पात्र)
•Colosseum (रोमन खेल मैदान)
•Statues (प्रतिमाएं)
•Aqueducts (जलसेतु)
•
📝 2. Literary / Written Sources (साहित्यिक / लिखित स्रोत)
•Texts – Histories written by Contemporary Historians (समकालीन इतिहासकार)
•Documents (दस्तावेज़)
•
📸 3. Aerial Photographs (हवाई फ़ोटोग्राफ़)
📜 Documentary Sources (दस्तावेज़ी स्रोत)
•Inscriptions (शिलालेख) – usually cut on stone; found in Greek & Latin.
•Papyri (पपीरस) – made from reed-like plant on Nile river banks; used as writing material.
•Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters, and official documents survive on papyrus.
•Scholars who study them are called Papyrologists (पपीरस विशेषज्ञ).
🌍 Boundaries of the Roman Empire (रोमन साम्राज्य की सीमाएं)
•Spread across three continents – Europe, Asia, and Africa.
•North – Rivers Rhine & Danube.
•South – Sahara Desert (सहारा मरुस्थल).
•East – River Euphrates (यूफ्रेटीस).
•West – Atlantic Ocean (अटलांटिक महासागर).
•Mediterranean Sea (भूमध्य सागर) was the heart of the empire.
•
🏛 Division of the Roman Empire (रोमन साम्राज्य का विभाजन)
Two main phases:
Early Empire (प्रारंभिक साम्राज्य) → Beginning till main part of 3rd century.
Late Empire / Late Antiquity (उत्तरकालीन साम्राज्य) → 3rd century till the end.
3rd century is considered a historical watershed (ऐतिहासिक मोड़) between the two phases.
🏛 The Early Empire (प्रारंभिक साम्राज्य)
⚙️ Administration (प्रशासन)
Main Institutions:
⚔ The Army (सेना) – Professional, conscripted (ज़बरदस्ती भर्ती), 25 years compulsory service for certain groups.
🏛 The Senate (सीनेट) – Wealthy landowning aristocrats ka representative body; centuries
👑 The Aristocracy (अभिजात वर्ग) – Richest Roman & Italian families.
🏆 The Emperor (सम्राट) – Supreme authority; success depended on army control.
🏺 Republic (गणराज्य) – Earlier system before emperors.
🌍 Provincial Territory (प्रांतीय क्षेत्र) – Directly controlled regions of empire.
💰 Taxation (कर व्यवस्था) – Provinces & kingdoms se large revenue collection.
🗣 Languages (भाषाएँ)
Official: Latin & Greek Many other local languages were spoken across the empire.
🏛 Principate (प्रिंसिपेट)
•Established: 27 BCE by Augustus (first emperor).
•Meaning: Princeps = “Leading Citizen” (not absolute ruler).
•Ended chaotic Roman conditions, ruled till 14 BCE.
•Advised by Senate.
•
⚔ Army’s Role (सेना की भूमिका)
Main pillar of imperial rule along with emperor & aristocracy.
Army division often led to civil wars (e.g., 69 CE – 4 emperors in quick succession).
•
👑 Famous Emperors (प्रसिद्ध सम्राट)
Nero
Julius Caesar
Octavian Augustus
Tiberius (ruled 14–37 CE)
Trajan (ruled 98–117 CE; expanded empire towards Euphrates but abandoned later).
📚 The Augustan Age (ऑगस्टस युग)
•Golden era of literature & peace after centuries of wars.
•Augustus expanded empire & brought stability.
•Vast empire under Tiberius → no need for more expansion.
•
•
🌍 Territories (क्षेत्र)
Dependent Kingdoms (आश्रित राज्य) – Rich states like Herod’s kingdom (yielded ~5.4 million denarii/year = 125,000 kg gold/year).
Provincial Territories (प्रांतीय क्षेत्र) – Direct Roman control.
•
•
🏙 Cities (नगर)
Urban centres with magistrates, city council, & jurisdiction over nearby villages.
One city’s territory could not overlap with another’s, but villages were always included.
•
⚔️ The Third Century Crisis (तीसरी शताब्दी का संकट)
🌟 Peaceful Start
•The first two centuries of the Roman Empire were marked by peace, prosperity, and economic expansion 🕊️💰.
•Civil wars were absent (ग़ैरमौजूद) and external warfare (बाहरी युद्ध) was rare.
•
⚠️ Trouble Begins in the 3rd Century
From the 230s CE, signs of internal conflict (आंतरिक संघर्ष) appeared.
The Roman Empire had to fight on multiple fronts (कई मोर्चों पर लड़ना) simultaneously.
•
🏹 The Sasanians’ Rise
In 225 CE, an aggressive dynasty (आक्रामक वंश) called the Sasanians emerged in Persia (modern Iran).
Within 15 years, they expanded towards the Euphrates River.
Shapur I, the Iranian ruler, claimed: I crushed a Roman army of 60,000 and even captured Antioch (पूर्वी राजधानी).
🛡️ Germanic Invasions
At the same time, Germanic tribes (जर्मनिक जनजातियाँ) attacked the Rhine and Danube frontiers.
From 233–280 CE, repeated invasions struck provinces from the Black Sea to the Alps and Southern Germany.
Romans were forced to abandon territories beyond the Danube.
•
👑 Political Instability
In 47 years, Rome had 25 emperors — a clear sign of strain (तनाव) in the empire.
Frequent ruler changes weakened central control and stability.
📚 Gender, Literacy & Culture in the Roman Empire
👨👩👧 Family & Gender Roles
The Roman family was nuclear (एकल) and patriarchal (पितृसत्तात्मक – male-dominated).
Slaves (ग़ुलाम) were considered part of the family.
Marriages were mostly arranged (नियत), and women were often dominated (अधीन) by their husbands.
✍️ Literacy
Literacy (साक्षरता) levels varied (भिन्न) widely across the empire.
In many regions, education was casual (अनौपचारिक) and inconsistent (असंगत).
🌍 Cultural Diversity
The empire was culturally diverse (विविध), with languages like Aramaic, Coptic, Punic, Berber, and Celtic.
Many were purely oral (मौखिक) languages until scripts (लिपि) were invented.
Example: Armenian began to be written only in the 5th century (5वीं शताब्दी).
🎭 A. Sources of Entertainment
🏟 Colosseum – A huge (विशाल) arena where gladiators (योद्धा) fought with wild beasts (जंगली जानवर). It could accommodate (समायोजित करना) about 60,000 people.
🏟 Amphitheatre – Used for military drill (सैन्य अभ्यास) and for staging (प्रदर्शन करना) entertainments for soldiers.
🎉 Urban Entertainment – City populations enjoyed a much higher level of entertainment. One calendar shows that spectacula (दृश्य प्रदर्शन) filled 176 days (दिन) of the year!
🏺 B. Craft & Industry
💰 Minting – The process of making coins (सिक्के बनाना).
⛏ Mining – Extracting minerals or metals from the earth (खनन).
🍶 Amphorae – Large jars (मटके) used for storing wine, oil, etc. (तेल, शराब आदि रखने के बर्तन).
📜 Making Papyrus Scrolls – Preparing writing material from papyrus plant (पपीरस पौधे से लेखन सामग्री बनाना).
🚿 Public Baths – A striking feature (प्रमुख विशेषता) of Roman urban life
💱 Economic Expansion (आर्थिक विस्तार)
🌾 Main Goods (मुख्य वस्तुएं): Wheat , wine , olive oil from Spain, Gallic provinces, North Africa, Egypt, Italy
🚛 Transport (परिवहन): Liquids in amphorae (मटके 🏺)
Spanish Olive Oil (स्पेन का जैतून तेल): Better quality, cheaper, in Dressel 20 containers
🌿 Fertile Areas (उपजाऊ क्षेत्र): Italy, Sicily, Egypt, South Spain – rich in wine, wheat, olive oil
💧 Waterpower (जलशक्ति): Used for milling , hydraulic mining , large mining
🏦 Trade & Banking (व्यापार व बैंकिंग): Organized trade , banking , use of money 💵
⚖️ Roman Law (रोमन कानून): Strong legal system limiting emperors
👷♂️ WORKERS (श्रमिक)
1️⃣ Slavery as an Institution (दासप्रथा एक संस्था के रूप में)
2️⃣ Decline in Slave Supply (दास आपूर्ति में कमी)
3️⃣ Management of Labour (श्रम प्रबंधन)
•Keep reserve stock (आरक्षित भंडार) of tools twice as many as required
•Prevent production loss because loss in slave time > cost of tools
•
•
4️⃣ Living Conditions of Slaves (दासों की जीवन स्थितियां)
🏛 SOCIAL DIVISION (सामाजिक विभाजन)
📜 Main Categories
1.Presbyterian (प्रेस्बिटेरियन)
1.The Aristocratic Class (अभिजात वर्ग)
2.Second Class (द्वितीय वर्ग)
●
🏺 Structure of the Roman Empire Society
●
📌 Facts & Changes Over Time
Early 3rd Century:
Senate had around 1,000 members, nearly 50% from Italian families.
Late Empire:
Senators & Equites merged into a unified, expanded aristocracy (एकीकृत व विस्तृत अभिजात वर्ग).
🏢 The Middle Class (मध्य वर्ग)
•Consisted mainly of people in imperial service (शाही सेवा).
•Worked in bureaucracy (नौकरशाही), especially in administration.
•
🌾 The Lower Class – Humiliores (निम्न वर्ग)
Literally means "Lower" (निम्न).
Mostly rural labour force (ग्रामीण श्रमिक बल)
💰 Wealth & Corruption (धन व भ्रष्टाचार)
Late Roman bureaucracy (both higher & middle ranks) was comparatively affluent (सापेक्ष रूप से समृद्ध).
Salaries paid mostly in gold (सोना) — used to buy land & assets (भूमि व संपत्ति).
High corruption (उच्च भ्रष्टाचार) in:
Judicial system (न्याय प्रणाली)
Military supply administration (सैन्य आपूर्ति प्रशासन)
📜 JEWISH WAR
🛕 Religious Beliefs in the Roman Empire
•The Romans were polytheists (अनेक देवताओं में विश्वास करने वाले) and worshipped several gods & goddesses.
•Popular deities (लोकप्रिय देवता) included:
•🪐 Jupiter – King of the Gods
•⚔️ Mars – God of War
•👑 Juno – Queen of the Gods
•🧠 Minerva – Goddess of Wisdom
•🌊 Isis – Egyptian Goddess
🔱 Religious Sects in the Empire
Mithraism (मिथ्रावाद) – Important sect in the Roman Empire from 1st to 4th century CE.
Judaism (यहूदी धर्म) – Belief in Jehova (यहोवा) as the sole creator of the universe (सृष्टि का रचयिता).
🕎 Judaism: Diversity & Complexity
•Judaism was not a monolith (एकरूप नहीं था) – there was diversity (विविधता) within Jewish communities.
•The Christianisation (ईसाईकरण) of the empire in the 4th–5th centuries was a gradual (क्रमिक) and complex (जटिल) process.
•
✝ Christianity vs. Polytheism
Polytheism did not vanish instantly, especially in western provinces (पश्चिमी प्रांत).
Christian bishops (बिशप – उच्च धार्मिक पदाधिकारी) actively fought traditional beliefs & practices (पारंपरिक विश्वास और रीति-रिवाज).
Ordinary members of the Christian community (laity – सामान्य अनुयायी) were often less strict (कम कठोर) than their leaders.
•
🛡 Religious Boundaries in the 4th Century
Religious boundaries were fluid (लचीले) – followers often mixed traditions.
Powerful bishops tightened control (नियंत्रण कड़ा किया) and enforced rigid beliefs & practices (कठोर आस्थाएं और रीति-रिवाज).
•
📜 Late Antiquity
(4th to 7th Century CE)
🎭 Cultural Features of the Roman World (4th–7th Centuries)
👑 Emperors and their Achievements
I. Constantine’s Achievements
Overexpansion of the Empire 🗺️
The empire became overextended (अत्यधिक फैलाव), making administration (प्रशासन) more difficult.
Capital at Constantinople 🏙️
Major innovation (नवाचार) was the division of the Roman Empire into East and West.
A second capital was created at Constantinople (modern Istanbul, previously Byzantium), surrounded by sea on three sides.
Christianity as Official Religion ✝️
Constantine made Christianity the official religion (आधिकारिक धर्म).
The period also saw the rise of Islam (इस्लाम) in the 7th century.
Monetary Reforms 💰
Constantine introduced a new denomination (नई मुद्रा इकाई) — the Solidus, a pure gold coin (4½ gm).
These coins outlasted (अधिक समय तक टिके) the Roman Empire itself.
Solidus were minted on a large scale (बड़े पैमाने) and circulated in millions (लाख)
⚔️ II. Diocletian’s Achievements
1.Strategic Retrenchment (कटौती)
1.Abandoned territories with little strategic or economic value to reduce defense burdens.
2.Fortified Frontiers & Military Reform 🛡️
1.Strengthened borders.
2.Reorganized provinces and separated civilian from military powers.
🏛️ III. Justinian’s Achievements
Justinian Code (Corpus Juris Civilis) 📚
Compiled a uniform set of Roman laws, influencing European legal systems for centuries.
Expansion of Empire 🌍
Reclaimed Africa from Vandals (533 CE).
Recovered Italy from Ostrogoths (but devastation allowed Lombard invasion later).
Economic & Monetary Prosperity 💎
Stable gold currency and population growth stimulated trade.
Egypt paid 2½ million solidi in taxes annually (~35,000 lbs of gold).
Urban & Industrial Growth 🏭
Glass factories established.
Continued use of Solidus.
Flourishing cities indicated urban prosperity (शहरी समृद्धि).
📉 Downfall of the Empire (साम्राज्य का पतन)
🏛 Prosperity in the East (पूर्व में समृद्धि)
•The general prosperity (सामान्य समृद्धि) was especially marked in the East till the 6th century ✨.
•Even the plague (महामारी) of the 540s couldn’t fully stop population growth 📈.
•
⚔ Fragmentation in the West (पश्चिम में विखंडन)
•In the West, the empire politically fragmented (राजनीतिक रूप से टूट गया) 🏚.
•
Germanic groups (जर्मनिक समूह) from the North — Goths, Vandals, Lombards — took over major provinces and established post-Roman kingdoms (उत्तर-रोमन राज्य) 🛡.
🗡 Major Kingdoms & Their Fall (प्रमुख राज्यों का पतन)
•Visigoths in Spain → destroyed by Arabs (711–720) ⚔.
•Franks in Gaul (c. 511–687) → transformed into new political systems 🏰.
•Lombards in Italy (568–774) → conquered and absorbed 🏺.
•These kingdoms marked the start of a new medieval era (मध्यकालीन युग की शुरुआत) ⏳.
•
•
🌍 Eastern Rome vs Iran (पूर्वी रोम बनाम ईरान)
•Early 7th century → war flared up between Eastern Rome and Iran 🔥.
•Sasanian Empire (सासानी साम्राज्य) launched a full-scale invasion (संपूर्ण आक्रमण) into major eastern provinces — including Egypt 🏜.
•
