✨ Changing Cultural Traditions (बदलती हुई सांस्कृतिक परम्पराएँ)
🌟 Renaissance (पुनर्जागरण)
- 🔹 Renaissance is a French word meaning rebirth (पुनर्जन्म).
- 🔹 It began in Italy, then spread to Rome, Venice, and Florence.
- 🔹 It created a sense of equality (समानता) and attacked superstitions (अंधविश्वास) and customs of society.
- 🔹 Renaissance literature brought a great change (महान परिवर्तन) in political thinking.
👤 Renaissance Man (पुनर्जागरण पुरुष)
- 🔹 A person with many interests and skills (कई कौशल वाला व्यक्ति).
📜 Document of Indulgence (दस्तावेजों का दस्तावेज)
- 🔹 A document issued by the Church, giving a written promise (वाद) to pardon all sins of its holder.
🖨️ Printing Press (मुद्रण यंत्र)
- 🔹 Invented by Gutenberg in 1455.
- 🔹 In 1477, Caxton set up the first press in Europe.
- 🔹 It increased the production of books (पुस्तकों का उत्पादन) and spread education (शिक्षा का प्रसार).
🎨 Leonardo da Vinci (लियोनार्डो द विन्सी)
- 🔹 Great painter (चित्रकार), born in Florence in 1452.
- 🔹 Interests: botany (वनस्पति विज्ञान), anatomy (शरीर रचना विज्ञान), mathematics (गणित), and art (कला).
- 🔹 Created Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.
🔭 Galileo (गैलीलियो)
- 🔹 Italian scientist (वैज्ञानिक).
- 🔹 Invented the telescope (दूरबीन) and discovered facts of astronomy (खगोल शास्त्र).
✝️ Society of Jesus (यीशु की सोसायटी)
- 🔹 Founded in 1540 by Ignatius Loyola (इग्नेसियस लोयाला).
- 🔹 Worked against Protestantism (प्रोटेस्टेंटिज़्म).
🧑⚕️ Andreas Vesalius (एन्ड्रयूज वेसेलियस)
- 🔹 Belgian professor of medicine (आयुर्विज्ञान) at Padua University (1514–1564).
- 🔹 First to perform human dissection (मानव शरीर की चीर-फाड़) for study.
🌍 Humanism (मानवतावाद)
- 🔹 Movement started in Italy in the 14th century (14वीं शताब्दी).
- 🔹 Petrarch = Father of Humanism (मानवतावाद का पिता).
- 🔹 Criticized priests’ superstitions (अंधविश्वास) and lifestyle.
- 🔹 Believed man is free to live his own life (freedom – स्वतंत्रता).
- 🔹 Happiness should be sought in this world (इस संसार में).
- 🔹 Cities like Milan, Naples, Venice, Florence became trade centers.
🌍 Features of Humanist Ideas (मानवतावादी विचारों के अभिलक्षण)
- 🔹 Focused on happiness & prosperity (सुख और समृद्धि) of human life.
- 🔹 Humans exist not only for religion and God (धर्म और ईश्वर) but also for themselves.
- 🔹 Man has a special significance (विशेष महत्व).
- 🔹 Improve human life & solve material problems (भौतिक समस्याएँ).
- 🔹 Respect man as God’s finest creation (सर्वोत्कृष्ट रचना).
- 🔹 Renaissance art: Jesus shown as human child (मानव शिशु), Mary as loving mother (वात्सल्यमयी माँ).
- 🔹 Writers placed human emotions (भावनाएँ) at the center – not God.
- 🔹 Famous works: Divine Comedy, Utopia, Hamlet.
📘 Characteristics of Humanist Thought (मानवतावादी विचार की विशेषताएँ)
- 🔹 Humanist teachers taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, moral philosophy.
- 🔹 Emphasized law studies (कानून का अध्ययन) in context of Greek & Roman culture.
- 🔹 Taught shaping life beyond religion, power, wealth.
- 🔹 Thomas More (England) & Erasmus (Holland) criticized Church’s greed.
- 🔹 Some opposed idea that happiness is sinful (खुशी पाप है).
- 🔹 Believed history leads to perfect life (पूर्ण जीवन); used the term modern (आधुनिक) for 15th century.
👩 Women in the 16th Century (महिलाओं की स्थिति)
- 🔹 Women could not advise in business; without dowry, many became nuns (भिक्षुणी).
- 🔹 Limited role in public life; merchant women managed shops.
- 🔹 Intellectual women: Cassandra Fedele (कसान्द्रा फेदले) – scholar of Greek & Latin.
- 🔹 Isabella d’Este (ईसाबेला दि इस्ते) ruled Mantua in absence of her husband.
🏛️ Italian Architecture (इटली की वास्तुकला)
- 🔹 Revival of Rome (रोम) in 15th century led to new architecture.
- 🔹 Inspired by classical style (शास्त्रीय शैली) from excavated ruins.
- 🔹 Grand churches, palaces, forts were built.
- 🔹 Buildings decorated with paintings, sculptures, designs.
- 🔹 Features: domes (गुंबद), interior decorations (भीतरी सजावट), arched doors (मेहराबदार दरवाजे).
🕌 Islamic Architecture (इस्लामी वास्तुकला)
- 🔹 Used geometric patterns (ज्यामितीय नक्शे) & stone inlay (पच्चीकारी).
- 🔹 Religious buildings – mosques, shrines, tombs had arches, domes, minarets, courtyards.
- 🔹 Features: bulb-shaped domes (बल्ब आकार गुंबद), horseshoe arches (घोड़े के खुर जैसे मेहराब), twisted columns (मरोड़दार खंभे).
- 🔹 Tall minarets (मीनारें) & open courtyards were common.
🏙️ Italian Cities & Humanism (इतालवी शहर और मानवतावाद)
- 🔹 First to experience Humanist ideas because earliest universities (विश्वविद्यालय) were established there.
- 🔹 Padua & Bologna = centers of legal studies (कानूनी अध्ययन) since 11th century.
- 🔹 Law studied with reference to Roman culture (रोमन संस्कृति).
- 🔹 Religious teaching alone was not enough; society & nature must also be studied. This was Humanism (मानवतावाद).
✝️ Debates within Christianity (ईसाई धर्म में वाद-विवाद)
- 🔹 Rejected unnecessary rituals (अनावश्यक कर्मकांड).
- 🔹 Called to follow old scriptures (पुराने धर्म ग्रंथ).
- 🔹 Man considered a free rational being (मुक्त विवेकपूर्ण कर्ता) with freedom to live life.
📌 Results (इसके परिणाम)
- 🔹 Criticism of document of indulgence (पाप स्वीकारो दस्तावेज).
- 🔹 Bible (बाइबिल) translated into local languages – people realized Church’s money-collecting practices were wrong.
- 🔹 Opposition to taxes (कर) imposed on peasants by Church.
- 🔹 Kings also opposed Church’s interference (हस्तक्षेप) in state matters.
